A patchwork of more than 60 ethnic groups
"Patchwork", "mosaic", "kaleidoscope" of different ethnic groups and peoples: there is no shortage of names to highlight the diversity of the Ivorian socio-cultural fabric. Although we generally speak of sixty ethnic groups, no official figure can give a precise ratio and the numbers still hesitate between fifty and eighty, including sub-groups of the various ethnic families. Nevertheless, behind the apparent complexity of this human geography, one can distinguish four major ethnic and linguistic groups that form a framework that simplifies the reading of the different settlements of Côte d'Ivoire: the Akans, the Gours, the Mandés and the Krous.
The great Akan family
Concentrated in the south-eastern quarter of the country, the Akans are the majority ethnic group in Côte d'Ivoire, accounting for 38% of the population, according to the Institut National de la Statistique de Côte d'Ivoire. They migrated to what is now Côte d'Ivoire in successive waves from the Ashanti kingdom in present-day Ghana, between the late 17th and mid-18th centuries, when it was at its height.
Three main groups can be distinguished among the Akans.
The first to settle werethe so-called frontier Akans, who included the Abrons and Agnis-Bafrés, who founded the Sanwi kingdom in the late 17th century.
The central Akans (or Baoulés), led by Queen Pokou in the 18th century, came from Ghana across the Comoé River to escape the wars of succession in the Ashanti kingdom.
The lagoon-dwelling Akans, made up of several small ethnic groups, mostly from the east, are also present, albeit from more diverse origins and at different times. Their presence is therefore more fragmented. They include the Adioukrous and Abidjis (from the west), the Attiés, Abbeys, Alladians, Ébriés, Abourés, Éhotilés and N'Zimas (also known as Apollonians).
Societal model. Among the Akans, society is organized into matrilineal lineages divided into several clans, which form kingdoms whose influence extends to the surrounding villages and provinces. The age-class system, a guarantee of peace, political stability and respect for values, governs the social functioning of the lagoon-dwelling Akans. This system enables the exercise of village and tribal democracy through the establishment of political equality and the periodic renewal of the body politic, with power assumed by rotation over a limited period of time.
The King exercised collegial power, reigning jointly with the Queen Mother, and was assisted in the exercise of his power by a Privy Council made up of the heads of his clan's families, and a Governing Council made up of the chiefs of the kingdom's major provinces. The attributes of power are the stool, or bia, symbolizing the king's political and religious authority; the package containing the weights for weighing gold, or dja (symbolizing the reigning sovereign's economic power); and the ceremonial saber, a scimitar, symbolizing military strength. Conquered peoples and their chiefs swore loyalty and allegiance by submitting to this sword.
Akan agriculture is essentially subsistence farming, based on yams, plantains, cassava and other secondary crops. Among the lagoon-dwellers, fishing remains the dominant activity. In terms of handicrafts, the Akans stand out for their woodcarving, weaving with the large checkered Baoule or Bassamois loincloths (also from the Ashanti kingdom), and their highly elaborate musical and choreographic traditions (talking drums, initiation dances). Finally, as in many ethnic groups, religion is based on belief in a single god, a force immanent to the will and power of secondary divinities and human beings.
The Gours or Voltaics from the North
The Gours or Voltaïques (derived from the former colonial name of Burkina Faso, "Haute Volta"), found mainly in the northeast of the country, are one of the oldest peoples of Côte d'Ivoire. According to the INS, they account for 21% of the population. Among them are three sub-groups: the Sénoufos, Lorhons-Koulangos and Lobis. But the patchwork of ethnic groups is vast: Gbin, Niarafolo, Ténéwéré, Nafana, Tiembara, Degha, Lohon, Tagouana, Djamala, Djimini, Birifor, Samassogo, Djafolo, Camara..
The Sénoufos occupy the central part of northern Côte d'Ivoire, extending into neighboring Mali and Burkina Faso. Mainly the towns of Korhogo, Ferkessédougou, Boundiali, Madiani, Séguélon, Katiola... The Sénoufos were the first to settle in the country. Their ancestors were the Pallaka (or Falafala) and Myoro peoples, who lived by hunting and gathering. They were semi-nomadic and moved south from Mali in the 11th or 12th century, where game was more abundant, only to be blocked by the rainforest. The early arrival of the Mandés in the north of the country after the fall of the Mali Empire meant that the two ethnic families influenced each other and cohabited over the centuries.
The Lorhons-Koulangos ("those who are not afraid of death"), close relatives of the Sénoufos, are mainly found in the northeast corner at the junction of the three borders between Côte d'Ivoire, Burkina Faso and Mali, and are present in Bondoukou. The Lorhons, ancestors of the Koulangos, are thought to have been among the region's earliest occupants for over 2,000 years. According to oral tradition, the Bounkani warrior, born of a Lorhon mother and a Dagomba father (from what is now northern Ghana), founded the Koulango kingdom of Bouna in the early 17th century. Originally animists, the Koulangos underwent a massive conversion to Islam under the pressure of the Mande-Dioula culture, without abandoning their worship of nature spirits, which they perpetuate through secret initiation societies whose masks are their main artistic expression.
The Lobis. Originally from what is now northern Ghana, they are mainly concentrated in the Bouna region. Several Lobi villages can be found in the Comoé National Park. A nomadic people par excellence, they live between Côte d'Ivoire and neighboring Burkina Faso. They are thought to have entered Côte d'Ivoire in successive waves since the 18th century. Fierce warriors with a reputation as excellent farmers and, naturally, formidable hunters, these leaderless peasants quickly overwhelmed the indigenous Koulangos and enslaved them.
Societal model. Among the Gours, society is organized into groups of matrilineal descent united by patrilocal marriages, although this trait common to many Voltaic peoples was masked among the Koulangos by the dagomba dynasty, which imported a system of patrilineal succession when the kingdom of Bouna was established. Lineages are united by the cult of ancestors and, above all, that of the spirits of nature, perpetuated by large secret societies responsible for initiations, such as the poro of the Sénoufos and the dyoro of the Lobis. The Gours have developed equal skills in agriculture and handicrafts, which underpin village life.
The Mandates to the north and northwest
According to the INS, they account for 28% of the population. Mainly located in the north-west and north-east of the country, their presence in Côte d'Ivoire corresponds to some of the extreme reaches of the Mandingo world, essentially centered on Mali, Upper Guinea and Upper Niger. A distinction is made between the Mande of the north (Malinké, Bamana, Dioula, Bambara, Koyaka, Mahouka ethnic groups) and the Mande of the south (Dan also known as Yacouba, Toura, Gouro, Gagou, etc.).
The Malinke, who occupy the entire northwest, are the most numerous. A distinction is made between the "eastern" Malinkés, concentrated in the Kong, Bouna and Bondoukou regions, and the "western" Malinkés (the most numerous), mainly present in Séguéla, Touba and Odienné.
The Dioulas, for their part, are historically located in Kong, but also in Bouna and Bondoukou, trading towns where they founded important colonies in the past. Because of their trading activities, they are found throughout the north (around Korhogo) and west (around Man).
The Koyakas. Originally concentrated in the Worodougou region, around the towns of Mankono and Séguéla, sometimes as far as Touba. The sacred dance of the Koyaka is Doh, performed during Ramadan (the Muslim fasting month).
Societal model. Mandinka society is organized into patrilineal lineages grouped into different clans, which in turn are made up of villages grouped into cantons. Social stratification traditionally differentiates nobles from artisan castes (griots, blacksmiths, shoemakers) and slaves, but the seemingly strict hierarchy of this system is rendered ambivalent by a whole set of vertical relationships that short-circuit socio-professional categorization. The Dioulas, specialized in trade, form professional associations with the hunters, who play an important role in society. In the arts, the Mandingo are skilled in woodcarving, but excel above all in ironwork and weaving. Their traditional religion is based on ancestor worship and initiation societies, practices they have managed to preserve while adhering to Islam in a harmonious syncretism. The southern Mande, on the other hand, live in the forested areas of the central south-west: among them are the Dans (or Yacoubas) and the Touras, located in the mountainous regions of the west. Like the Krous, they are characterized by an essentially forested civilization and an absence of central authority. Their social organization is based on lineage structures, which are in principle all equal. The village is the main political entity, and the various ritual and/or political functions are divided between the lineages, with primacy often given to the lineage of the village founders. Their economic activity is mainly based on gathering, as well as rice and tuber cultivation. Their religion is based on the belief in an all-powerful god who expresses himself through the spirits of nature and the ancestors, embodied in the many masks, all of which are beautifully crafted.
The Krous in the south-central and west-central regions
According to the INS, they represent 11% of the population. The Krou ethnic group can be divided into two main groups, made up of 21 tribes with related languages, including 6 on Liberian territory and 15 on Ivorian soil. In Côte d'Ivoire, they are found in the south-central and south-western regions, on either side of the Cavally river, from the Guineo-Ivorian mountains to the ocean. They were established under the combined pressure of the "Mandingo push" from Mali between the 13th and 14th centuries. The most important are: the Bété, Wé (themselves divided into Guéré, Wobé, Gnamboa), Aïzi, Bakwé, Wane, Kuya, Godié, Dida, Kodia, Nyabwa ethnic groups. The Krou languages, a subgroup of the Niger-Congo languages, are among the most complex tonal systems in Africa.
The Bétés make up the main population of this ethnic group. Originally located mainly around the large regions of Gagnoa, Daloa and Soubré, but now largely in Abidjan, they maintain close social and cultural links with the other ethnic groups in this group. The Dida, Wé and Kroumen ethnic groups are the best known of the Krou ethnic groups.
Societal model. The Krou are characterized by an essentially forest-based civilization and a society organized into patrilineal lineages that control economic, political and social activities. As a consequence of the relief of this part of the country and the "acephalism" characterizing their social organization (absence of central power, administrative machinery and judicial organization), their habitat is often dispersed and, with rare exceptions, the formation of political units rarely goes beyond the village, constituted as a sovereign community. With the exception of the coastal areas and some of the northern regions affected by the cola trade routes, the Krous have long been isolated and unrecognized by the world. Economic life is based on hunting, agriculture (rice, manioc, corn, etc.) and slash-and-burn cultivation, while in terms of craftsmanship, the Krous, particularly the Wés, maintain a remarkable tradition of woodcarving (masks). This ethnic group also stands out for its mastery of music and dance. As for their religious beliefs, they are based on the existence of a distant supreme being, relayed by a host of secondary divinities, genies and other spirits.
A great linguistic wealth
Reflecting its ethnic diversity, the country also offers great linguistic variety, with some 70 languages, of which only 17 transcend village and/or ethnic boundaries. As a commercial lingua franca, Dioula occupies a privileged position and is spoken as a second language by over seven million people, although it is the mother tongue of only 15% of the population. The majority of Ivorian children speak at least two local languages, including Dioula, Baoulé, Bété and Agni. As for French, it is the official language adopted by the State, taught in schools and used in administrative offices. It is estimated that around two-thirds of the population aged six and over speak "some form of French", with almost a million speakers using only a "pidginized" variety of French. Due to the large number of foreigners on Ivorian soil, languages from Burkina Faso, Mali and Guinea are also widely spoken.
Foreigners, a quarter of the Ivorian population
Foreigners are very numerous in Côte d'Ivoire, numbering 6 million out of a total population of 24 million, i.e. 25% of the population. Of these, 75% are Muslim, reversing the balance between Christians and Muslims in Côte d'Ivoire, with the latter now in the majority. The most numerous are the Burkinabè, present on Ivorian soil since the 1920s-1930s, when Mossis, Bobos and Sénoufos from Upper Volta (present-day Burkina Faso) were forcibly brought to Côte d'Ivoire to build the railroad and work on the country's agro-industrial plantations. Today, their population is estimated at over 2 million. Malians and Guineans are also very numerous. Immigration from these neighbors accelerated in the 1960s-1970s, when Félix Houphouët-Boigny called on an indentured foreign workforce to work in difficult conditions on the country's booming cocoa plantations. The "Ivorian miracle" attracted a considerable foreign population over the decades. A population crystallized by national tensions when the great cocoa crisis arrived in the 1980s. The very concept of "Ivorian-ness" is a matter of debate in a nation in the throes of economic crisis from the 1990s to the present day, even though these foreigners have been living in Côte d'Ivoire for decades. The country boasts a cosmopolitan population of Ghanaians, Liberians, Peuls, Touaregs, Senegalese, Beninese, Togolese, Nigerians (notably Yorubas), Cameroonians, Congolese from Brazzaville and Kinshasa, and especially in Abidjan, Lebanese, Europeans, Americans, Chinese, Indo-Pakistanis...
The Lebanese community
The Lebanese diaspora in Côte d'Ivoire is now the largest in Africa. The community is estimated to number between 80,000 and 100,000 individuals, 90% of whom live in Abidjan, and most of whom hold Ivorian nationality. In 2017, the 3,000 or so locally-based Lebanese companies contributed 8% to the country's GDP. At the time, the locals referred to them as "demi-Blancs" (half-whites) because of their warmth and lifestyle, which was much closer to that of Africans than Europeans. Initially specializing in local trade, they sold their wares by peddling from village to village, then opened stores and grocery stores and rapidly prospered, gaining a monopoly on small retail trade. The massive influx of immigrants - mainly Maronite Christians from northern Lebanon (1880-1914), followed by Shiites from southern Lebanon (1918-1960) - continued until independence in 1960. A new wave of immigration, mainly due to the ravages of the civil war in Lebanon (1975-1990) and the occupation of the south of the country by the Israeli army from 1982, precipitated many Lebanese nationals into exile. Mostly Shiite and less educated than their predecessors, they expanded their businesses, specializing in real estate, forestry, small-scale industry and distribution. Often portrayed as corrupt, racist and inward-looking, this Levantine community will always be there when the going gets tough, putting up with the "je t'aime moi non plus" relationship with the Ivorians. For a little over a decade, we have been witnessing a new generation of Lebanese who are both more "Ivorized" and more "Westernized" than their parents. Indeed, the mass departure of Westerners following the events of 2004 has left the community free to expand its business activities. This new generation, born in Côte d'Ivoire and having studied abroad, is more open to the world than its predecessors, and often maintains a weaker link with Lebanon. They encourage closer ties between communities through intermarriage, mastery of the French language and adoption of local customs.
