The importance of words
Our first encounter with Madagascar is through the discovery of surnames, as fascinating for their length as for their lilting sound. The order of the syllables is not random; on the contrary, they contain precious information on genealogy (Zana, daughter or son of, Zafi, granddaughter or grandson of, etc.), and are even intended as a story in their own right. A famous example is the 17th-century king Andriantsimitoviaminandriandehibe, whose name means "the prince who is not like other great princes". The structure evolved with the centuries and colonization: while several children in a sibling could have the same first name, each had his or her own surname, chosen by the parents according to what they wished for the newborn, or what they had discerned about his or her future from his or her birth horoscope. This may be less true today, but this science still demonstrates the importance of oral tradition in Malagasy society, of what is passed down through the spoken word and constitutes a common heritage, just like the fady (taboo, forbidden) which may concern a situation or an object, but which is decreed at local level and passed down from generation to generation, in respect of the cult of the Ancients.
It's hardly surprising, then, that the island's earliest literature is above all the product of oral tradition, as exemplified by the founding myth Ibonia. This epic poem, of which there are as many versions as there are ethnic groups (and there are many in Madagascar: 18, or even 19 if we add the Vazahas, descendants of 20th-century immigrants), nevertheless has a single plot: the strange birth of the hero who gives his name to the story, followed by the adventures he has to face before finally marrying the woman to whom he was promised. The first written mention of this tale, which until then had been passed down by word of mouth - during a narration that could last several hours - comes from the French colonial administrator Etienne de Flacourt, in his 1657 book La Grande Isle. The first Malagasy transcription dates from the early 19th century. Although anonymous, but certainly by a Malagasy author, this version is precious for its age, which guarantees its purity, free from too many European influences. Rarely enough to be mentioned, it was indeed the natives who undertook the work of collecting oral tradition, before this was also carried out by missionaries. It should also be noted that, at the same time, the Arabic characters (sora-be) previously used to write Malagasy - belonging to the Austronesian language group, as it was intrinsically linked to the two waves of original settlement of the island, first and foremost from South-East Asia, and then from Africa - were replaced by the Latin alphabet by decision of King Radama I. This new script spread, in particular, thanks to the arrival of the first French settlers. This new script spread, thanks in particular to the first printed works, namely a translation of the Bible (1835), followed by other religious works.
Transcription work in the 19th century..
The retranscription of oral tradition was to monopolize attention for a good century, and it has to be said that it takes the form of numerous genres, often specific to different regions. More hastily, we could divide them into two categories - songs, the precursors of poetry, and oratorical jousts, akin to theater - but both share a determining feature: the collective aspect. Without any pun intended, the choir - especially the women's choir - is at the heart of social life. In Madagascar, people sing together on all occasions, during physical labor, prayers and funeral rites, or to accompany men off to war in spirit. Oral tradition is the guarantor of the fundamental social bond (fihavanana). We could also mention kabary, the art of oratory included in UNESCO's list of the world's intangible cultural heritage since 2021. During public ceremonies, two speakers (mpikabary) exchange maxims and sayings, announcing events that affect the community, fulfilling a dual political and unifying function. Also in the realm of conversation - whether real or fictitious - hain-teny, particularly popular among the Merina, the inhabitants of Madagascar's central highlands, is perhaps derived from the Indonesian practice of pantun, which would confirm just how ancient a tradition it is. In rhythmic verse, words are exchanged, often on the subject of love. Finally, and still in the "tradition of the ancestors", according to its translation in our language, vakodrazana was imposed in the 18th century by the sovereign Andranampoinimerina, who saw in these shows a good way to educate and inform his people. Humor and love are never excluded from these community performances, which combine several arts, almost approaching the theater or operetta with which we are familiar.
The work of collecting was to take shape in numerous works, initiated by men from all walks of life, such as the Englishman James Sibree (1836-1929), who shared with the French naturalist Alfred Grandidier (1836-1921) a passion for endemic flora and fauna, but also wrote the story of his mission. Lars Dahle (1843-1925), born in Norway in 1843, founded the Lutheran Theological Seminary in Madagascar in 1871. As well as being famous for his revision of the Malagasy translation of the Bible, he put his rare gift for languages to work for the island he had fallen in love with. He produced a two-volume study, and above all the collection Ny Anganon'ny Ntaolo (Les Contes des Aïeux), which has been reprinted ever since. Finally, we could mention two Frenchmen, Father François Callet (1822-1885) and future publisher Jean Paulhan (1884-1968). The former took an interest in the Merina kingdom and in 1908 publishedTantara ny Andriana (History of the Kings), an invaluable document for what it revealed of the genealogy and retained of the royal speeches, but which was sometimes contested. The latter began his literary career - which would see him become editor-in-chief of La Nouvelle Revue Française (NRF) in 1920 - as a teacher in Tananarive in 1907. There, he developed an interest in hain-teny. Although the bilingual anthology he composed is now out of print with Geuthner éditeur, Lettres de Madagascar: 1907-1910 is still available from the publishing house that still bears his name.
...to that of writing, in the 20th century
And yet, while the heritage of the past is of undeniable value, in Madagascar, the beginning of the twentieth century can only be marked by concern for the present. Since the Treaty of Berlin, the island has lost its independence and become the object of increasingly assertive French conquest. Resistance made no difference, and Madagascar fell under the yoke of colonial administration on August 6, 1896. Ny Avana Ramananatoanina (1891-1940), who was exiled for his membership of the Vy Vato Sakelika (VVS) society, which secretly worked for rebellion against the French but was disbanded at the start of the First World War, wrote in Malagasy. His poetic work, inspired by traditional forms - which would later earn his generation the nickname Ny Mpanoratra zokiny (The Elders) - advocated a return to roots and Malagasy unity. Deemed too nationalistic, he was censored until the 1980s. His contemporary - Jean-Joseph Rabearivelo, born in 1901 or 1903 in Tananarive - is in some ways his opposite. Although he left school prematurely, he continued to learn French as a self-taught man, until he soon preferred it to Malagasy, the language in which he had written his first published texts. Ultimately feeling that he belonged to both continents, and even dreaming of living in Paris, his work serves as a kind of hyphen, influenced on the one hand by local folklore, and on the other by European symbolism and surrealism. Considered the first Malagasy poet - some would argue African - his literary output was a landmark, as evidenced by the number of works still available from publishers such as Sépia(Traduit de la nuit, Presque-songes), Passage(s)(Chants d'Iarive) and No comment éditions(L'Interférence, L'Aube rouge). His mistress Esther Razanadrasoa (1892-1931), known by her pen name Anja-Z, criticized him for his choice of French, as Swiss novelist Douna Loup recalls in L'Oragé, published by Zoé in 2015. Jean-Joseph Rabearivelo succumbed to these tragedies and decided to end his life on June 23, 1937. On that fateful date, half of his writings - poetry, drama, novels - had not yet been published, but would be after his death. On the other hand, a whole section of Malagasy literary production from the inter-war period - a fertile period in fact - has been lost forever. Indeed, it was disseminated through small, low-priced booklets or ultra-confidential periodicals, which have long since been lost. Other texts only survived because they were set to music, such as certain poems by Jean Verdi Salomon Razakandraina (1913-1978), who signed under the pseudonym Dox and was already very popular at the time. From the 1940s onwards, publishing became a little more structured, giving him the opportunity to publish collections(Ny Hirako in 1940, Solemita in 1949, Ny Fitiavany in 1957, etc.), which ensured him a well-deserved posterity.
From independence to the present day
If writing has developed particularly well in Madagascar, it's because it has remained intimately associated with the desire to preserve culture. The insurrection of March 1947, harshly put down by the French army, demonstrated once again that the island was not giving up on regaining its independence, which it finally achieved in full in 1960. In this respect, there was nothing contradictory about writers also working in politics, following the example of Jacques Rabemananjara (1913-2005), who held important positions in the government of Philibert Tsiranana, first president of the Malagasy Republic from 1959 to 1972, and was awarded the Grand Prix de la Francophonie by the Académie Française in 1988. Preservation and transmission also involve adding national writers to school curricula - Malagasy having finally regained its status as an official language - as in the case of texts by Georges Andriamanantena (known as Rado) or the prolix Clarisse Andramampandry Ratsifandrihamanana, member of the Académie Malagasy and winner of no less than seven literary prizes! On the contrary, Lucien Xavier Michel-Andrianarahinjaka took what he had learned from the oral tradition of the Betsileos to the international stage, and Pierre Randrianarisoa was a true ambassador for Madagascar, both politically and culturally.
Although the country has experienced some severe periods of instability since independence, it has never turned in on itself. Openness is a given, and has materialized in a variety of ways. One example is Esther Nirina (1932-2004), who lived in France from 1950 to 1990, and took up writing with the encouragement of Hélène Cadou, widow of René Guy Cadou. Her poetry(Silencieuse respiration, Simple voyelle, Lente spirale...) is marked by her dual culture, as is Esther Randriamamonjy, who also traveled, but through words, becoming not only the most widely read Malagasy writer for children, but also a translator of Victor Hugo and Albert Camus. Similarly, translation was one of the hats worn by Élie Rajaonarison, who died suddenly in 2010 at the age of 51. He was also an ardent defender of the Malagasy performing arts, while spearheading a modernity that combined hip-hop and poetry. His younger sibling, David Jaomanoro (1953-2014), also cultivated the art of mixing genres, having started out in poetry, continued in theater and ended up writing short stories(Œuvres complètes, éditions Sépia). In conclusion, the new generation seems determined to continue playing the role of bridge-builder between different cultures and literary genres. Born in Tananarive in 1966, Shaïne Cassim lives in France, where she works as an editor, translator and children's author for several publishers(Deux sœurs en décembre published by Thierry Magnier, Je ne suis pas Eugénie Grandet published by l'École des Loisirs). For his part, Jean-Luc Raharimanana is a prolific jack-of-all-trades, collection director at Vents d'ailleurs, stage director, lecturer... and winner of the Prix Tchicaya U Tam'si, the Grand Prix littéraire de Madagascar and the Prix de la poésie du Salon du livre insulaire d'Ouesssant! As a novelist, he is published by Quebec's Mémoire d'encrier(Tisser, 2021), Rivages(Revenir, 2018) and Joëlle Losfeld(L'Arbre anthropophage, 2004). Finally, the warm welcome given to La Bouée, published by Quidam éditeur in 2022, by Natacha Andriamirado, born in 1969, suggests that Malagasy literature has not finished making a name for itself, or surprising us.
