The Batswana, the country's majority ethnic group
Botswana means "land of the Tswana". Batswana, as Botswana people call themselves, are strictly speaking members of the Tswana ethnic groups, Bantu-speaking peoples from South Africa. Since the formation of the nation and the domination of other peoples by the Tswana, the citizens of Botswana have all become Batswana, regardless of their ethnic origin. Although the demarcation of boundaries during the colonial period concentrated three quarters of the Tswana in South Africa, they are still the most represented people in Botswana, comprising over 80 per cent of the population. The language spoken by the Tswana is Tswana or Setswana, which naturally became the national language of the country at independence. Traditionally, the social structure was dominated by the kgosi (chief) and his family members. The kgosi represented the supreme authority, which gave him rights, but also considerable obligations: he was the head of the army, decided on laws, dispensed justice, planned economic activities, controlled the distribution of goods and wealth... Nowadays, most of the former powers of the kgosi have been transferred to the state. However, the chiefs continue to play an important role in the village community, providing guidance and justice, especially in the distribution of livestock and land. For the Tswana, land belongs to the community and there is no private ownership. In order to settle in a village, one must apply to the chief, who will decide in kgotla whether and how much land can be allocated to the outsider.
The Bakalanga, a farming people
The Bakalanga are the second largest people in Botswana. They are a sub-group of the Shona of Zimbabwe, whose language is very close to their own. Their ancestors lived between the Shashe and Ramokgwebane rivers around 1,000 years ago, descended from peoples originally from Toutswemogala and the Mapungubwe area. Artificial border demarcation during the colonial era split the Bakalanga tribe in two, forcing them to live around 75% in Zimbabwe and the rest in Botswana. Today, they live mainly in the east of the country, but their adaptability has enabled them to gradually settle in large parts of the country, as in the Eastern Corridor region. There are three main groups: the Balilima, the Banyayi and a mix of Bapedi, Basotho and Batswana. Originally, the Bakalanga did not live in large villages as they do today, but in small hamlets established near a hill, valley or clearing. These hamlets generally comprised twenty to thirty families, whose primary task was to cultivate fields of sorghum, millet, melons and vegetables. Unlike the Tswana, land ownership among the Bakalanga was an essential factor in family power and influence. The importance of agriculture was such that dowries were paid in forged agricultural coins. Cattle, on the other hand, had no symbolic value and were used as a source of milk and protein, as well as for religious sacrifices.
The San, the first inhabitants of southern Africa
Also known as "Bushmen" or "Basarwa", the San live mainly in the heart of the Kalahari region. Numerous archaeological digs date the presence of this tribe in these arid lands back more than 40,000 years, and several archaeological remains and cave paintings attest to their occupation of the whole of southern Africa at the dawn of humanity. Part of the Khoisan ethnic group, which also includes the Khoi, the San indicate their clan affiliation by the dialect they speak. So there is not one, but several San peoples. There are a dozen dialects spoken by this tribe, which belongs to a particular linguistic family, the click language. These sounds, which are produced with the tongue or lips, are difficult to pronounce for the passing tourist, and are symbolized in writing by various signs, such as "!", "/" or "//". In addition to their dialects, the San are also fascinating for their traditional hunter-gatherer lifestyle, totally integrated into nature. Their habitat consists of simple huts made of branches and dried grasses, built around a waterhole. The people's social organization is non-hierarchical, and while each clan has its own leader, he is not above the others. The code of conduct, transmitted orally, is based on peaceful contact and friendship. Sharing is a duty, as is inter-clan marriage, which strengthens the bonds between different groups. Property is virtually non-existent, and what belongs to the clan belongs to everyone, and vice versa. Daily food - gathered by women and children and small game hunted by men - is shared equally within the family. As a sedentary people, the San know their environment inside out, from cosmetic plants to animal behaviour and tracks. It is estimated that an adult living according to the ancestral way of life knows more than three hundred plants and all their uses!
The Khoi, a sedentary, hierarchical people
The Khoi are part of the Khoisan language family. They therefore share a common origin with the San, as well as the characteristic morphotype: short stature, coppery and wrinkled skin, prominent cheekbones and flat face, among other things. As we have seen, there are several Khoisan peoples and within the Khoi there are several peoples and clans. The distinction between Khoi and San is therefore not clear-cut and the common cultural heritage is strong. However, it appears that the Khoi are now better integrated into Botswana society. For example, along the Boteti River, it is now known that several Khoi villages have remained relatively autonomous despite the arrival of Bantu farmers and that their relationship has been one of peaceful mutual exchange. This is probably due to the fact that the Khoi were both more sedentary than the San and also herders. Thus, when the Bantu arrived, they considered that the San did not occupy any territory whereas the Khoi marked their presence with their cattle. Furthermore, the social organisation of the Khoi is more hierarchical. Cattle are the heritage of a Khoi and his family. Unlike the San, the Khoi consider property, which therefore establishes social status and is transmitted. What is shared among the San is bought among the Khoi. In this way, the economy developed on the principle of material wealth. Cattle were not consumed, except on rare occasions, which allowed the owner to show off his social status. Khoi villages developed little by little with chiefs and leaders who concentrated the wealth to lead them. Their way of life remains however close to that of the San, they are also hunter-gatherers in addition to being breeders.
The Herero, the protégés of the Tswana
This herding people, probably originating from central Africa, followed a south-western migration and settled in present-day Namibia around the 15th century. The consistent presence of the Herero in Botswana dates back to the German colonization of Namibia. As early as the mid-1800s, the Herero chief Maherero and the Tswana chief Letsholathebe signed an agreement whereby each of the two peoples would offer asylum to the other in case of need. This agreement was not made in vain and benefited the Herero clan a few years later. Indeed, at the end of the 19th century, the Germans took control of south-west Africa and started to confiscate the Herero lands. The Herero rebelled violently against this practice and massacred several hundred Germans. This retaliation irritated the settlers, who then systematically exterminated them or put them in concentration camps. To escape the persecutions, many Herero went to South Africa, while others took advantage of the agreement signed with the Tswana to settle in Botswana. They settled in the Lake Ngami area as well as in the vicinity of Ghanzi and Shakawe. Deprived of everything in the adventure, the Herero were at first in a difficult situation in their new land of asylum. With time, thanks to their courage and determination, they gradually regained their herds, regained an honourable social status and became once again the excellent herdsmen they were basically. They also changed their way of life through contact with the Batswana, becoming farmers as well as herders. They settled permanently in the area and now consider themselves Botswana.
The Bakgalagadi, a minority people
Originally settled in South Africa in the Transvaal region, the Bakgalagadi moved west in the 1700s and settled in present-day Botswana on the edge of the Kalahari. Harsh living conditions and repeated invasion of their territories by more powerful peoples led to a significant decline in membership. Now numbering only about 80,000 individuals, most of whom have been integrated into other dominant groups, the Bakgalagadi live mainly in the Kalahari region. Their dialects are closer to the Sotho language than to the Tswana language. The Bakgalagadi are part of the minority peoples of Botswana like the Bayei, Hambukushu, Basubiya or the San. Moreover, as with the San, their integration into the dominant Tswana society is historically and geographically less strong. These Kalahari peoples are isolated, far from the traditional territories of the Tswana, and it must be noted that although the Constitution does not differentiate between the ethnic groups that make up the nation, their economic realities are very different. The Bakgalagadi are therefore poorer than the Tswana on average. Their arid environment deprives them of the development potential of other regions. The government takes into account these more difficult conditions and social programmes are put in place for the less fortunate.
The people of the rivers
The Basubiya, Bayei and Hambukushu began settling in Botswana around 1600, in the Zambezi region. Their villages are located on the banks of rivers, and all three live primarily from fishing, which is their main occupation. They practise some agriculture, keep a limited number of domestic animals and supplement their diet with hunting and gathering. The houses of these three peoples are similar, made of reeds and thatch. However, each ethnic group has its own history and culture. The Basubiya are a people divided between Botswana, Namibia and Zambia, who had their heyday in the 1700s and 1800s. Having defeated the Bayei, who also occupied the Zambezi and Chobe river basins, the Basubiya retained a certain authority over the Bayei, who left for the Okavango delta. Their capital was based at Luchindo, near present-day Ngoma. Their supremacy was short-lived, however, and the Balozi, whose capital was Katima Mulilo, today straddling Caprivi and Zambia, drove the Hambukushu towards Linyanti and the Okavango delta and incorporated the Basubiya into their empire. Their integration was so strong that, after the fall of the Lozi Empire in 1865, the Basubiya remained attached to this people, so much so that in present-day Botswana, the Basubiya are well isolated in what is known as the Chobe Enclave. Their families are often divided between the three countries. Farmers of the alluvial plains, the Basubiya follow the rise and fall of the waters of the great rivers to cultivate and raise their livestock. The Bayei, originally from Central Africa, arrived in Botswana in the 17th century and established their capital at Diyei, on the banks of the Kwando River. Arriving in the delta region, the Bayei found the River Bushmen or Banoka, one of the Khoi peoples, and established peaceful ties with them. Excellent fishermen, the Bayei introduced new catching techniques, which were widely adopted by the other inhabitants of the Okavango. In particular, the Bayei brought to the delta their famous mokoro, which they push upright from the back of the boat using long sticks adapted to these shallow waters. Also originally from Central Africa, the Hambukushu came in waves to settle in the Okavango River region: the first major migration took place in the mid-19th century, when Hambukushu chiefs began collaborating with black slave traders from Angola. At the end of the 19th century, more Hambukushu fled from southern Zambia because of oppression by the Lozi, and more recently, in the 1960s, at the time of the Angolan civil war, some 4,000 Hambukushu found refuge in Botswana, in the Gumare and Etsha region.This is how the refugee camps poetically named Etsha 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 came into being... Unlike the Bayei, the Hambukushu eventually made their home in the Panhandle region, where the waters of the Okavango are deeper and the land less prone to flooding. As farmers, they cleared the river banks and grew millet, maize, sugar cane and watermelon. Also herders and fishermen, they exploited both the river and the surrounding land. Like the Bayei, the Hambukushu use the mokoro, but unlike the Bayei, they propel it by paddling.
White citizens, a well-integrated community
When Seretse Khama and his fellow politicians founded the Botswana Democratic Party, their movement was clearly multiracial. Seretse's mixed marriage was already a step in this direction. Although Botswana had never been a colony, whites - British or Boers already present in the country and often holding important positions - were welcomed into the spheres of power. Influential businessmen and government officials were invited to stay and thus became Botswanans. While there was no strong political pressure for white integration, the Democratic Party's strategy was sound. In doing so, Botswana could benefit from the experience of these long-time residents and their network of connections with the former British protectorate or the Republic of South Africa. Thus, a small number of white families took citizenship. They had been resident in the country for several generations and their children would remain in Botswana. Their future was enviable, as most of them enjoyed good positions that they could pass on to their children. Their children were often educated outside the country, in England or South Africa, from where they returned to take over the family business. This applied to all areas of the economy, including tourism. The white citizens of Botswana thus have a real dual culture, or more precisely an original hybrid culture, feeling strongly Botswana while being aware of their difference and of the still real advantages conferred on them by their skin colour and their family relations with the West. The standard of living of the white citizens is in fact singularly higher than that of the average Botswanan. They were born in the country, often speak Setswana, and are generally well qualified to do their jobs, so there is no reason to question their legitimacy.
Expatriate workers, a tiny presence
They are active in many sectors of the Botswana economy, as well as members of the diplomatic corps of countries with which Botswana has a special relationship, and the majority live in the Gaborone area. Most of these expatriates come from Europe or South Africa. Most of them come with a multinational company, but also for Christian missions, for example. As for the Chinese, they build infrastructures, such as tarred roads or schools, in exchange for being able to set up a business. More and more of them, as well as Indians, are coming to settle with their families. In the tourism industry, the number of expatriates tends to decrease. Botswanans are increasingly qualified to replace them in management positions, and are already ubiquitous among employees. Guides are exclusively Botswanan, and diplomas from neighbouring countries are not convertible. So a South African guide, for example, will have great difficulty entering the Botswana market.
