Sandstone stelae and palm leaves
Two elements have survived the dark upheavals Cambodia has had to endure: the first because it has been able to adapt, the second because it has been able to make itself forgotten. The Khmer language, for example, has been nourished by foreign influences, borrowing from Sanskrit, Pali, French and now English, from which it draws a new vocabulary with an international outlook. By contrast, the remains of the Khmer Empire, which dominated the Indochinese peninsula from the 9th to the 15th centuries, remained hidden in a thick jungle, a glimpse of which is given in André Malraux's La Voie Royale (1930), which at the same time confirmed the looting. In a pitiful paradox, the man who was to become Minister of Cultural Affairs in 1959 had been sentenced to a prison term for theft and concealment of Khmer antiquities some thirty years before his appointment, but France nonetheless contributed to the rediscovery of archaeological treasures, of which Angkor Wat is the most striking example. Alexandre Mouhot (1826-1861), explorer and naturalist, visited the site during the winter of 1859-1860. Bringing back many sketches and sumptuous descriptions, he made the readers of Le Tour du monde magazine dream when it was published in 1863, and paved the way for the expeditions that multiplied over the following years.
At the very end of the century, in 1898, Paul Doumer, future President of the French Republic and then Governor General of Indochina, created the institution that was soon to be renamed the École française d'Extrême-Orient. Thanks to the fabulous work of referencing the bas-reliefs and lapidary inscriptions - for which it would be impossible not to think of Étienne Aymonier (1844-1929) for the considerable amount of information he collected - the entire little-known history of a kingdom was revealed, from the Fou-nan (or Funan) mentioned by the Chinese as early as the 1st century AD, to its decline from the 13th century onwards, presumably as a result of wars, the rise of Siam (later Thailand) or the introduction of Theravada Buddhism, which overthrew the established order. Obviously, in the strict sense of the word, these inscriptions were not literary in the sense that we understand them, as demonstrated by one of the earliest stelae found: dated 1053 and located on the site of the Sdok Kok Thom temple (now in Thailand), it lists the rulers from Jayavarman (who arrived from Java around 770 and is considered the founder of the Angkor kingdom) to Udayādityavarman II (who reigned from 1050 to 1066). Nevertheless, the historical value of these engraved texts is unquestionable and their survival remarkable, especially in view of the material that was also used as a support at the time, but which unfortunately did not rival sandstone in durability: palm leaf, also known as "ôle". While it is certain that this practice is the fruit of Indian influence, and that it has been used since at least the 12th century, as confirmed by a bas-relief from Angkor Wat, it is more difficult to imagine the extent of the corpus of texts transcribed in this way, due to the very fact of their disappearance. Indeed, most of these manuscripts on poles survived neither the ravages of time nor insect attack, and only a few have miraculously survived, such as Sur les créatures célestes or Les 83 remèdes. On the other hand, other knowledge was the subject of oral tradition, and was fixed in writing centuries later, such as the cosmogony known as Trai Phum(The Three Worlds). Some, finally, were copied onto more durable media before their scheduled disappearance, such as the priceless manuscripts of the Royal Chronicles, the oldest fragment of which dates back to 1796, but evokes the 14th and 15th centuries. These texts are written in Pali, which had by then replaced Sanskrit. Whatever our degree of discernment, it is customary to consider that Khmer literature in these remote times fell into three categories: commentaries on the texts of the Buddhist canon(Tripitaka), treatises on magic, astronomy or pharmacopoeia, and freer verse intended as words of wisdom or morality(cpāp',"code of conduct").
From legends to novels
The work that undoubtedly marks a turning point towards a more literary expression is the Reamker (or Ram Ker, or Ramakerti), the national epic. This is based on the Indian Rāmāyana, which, again on the basis of bas-reliefs and an inscription mentioning the offering of the original manuscript, was known in Cambodia as early as the 7th century. Over the centuries, the Cambodian version was enriched by episodes of its own, and in turn influenced other arts, sculpture of course, and above all dance, since this drama of heroes and demons confronting each other inspired artists and playwrights. There are no complete handwritten versions of this " Glory to Rama " prior to the 16th century, only fragments have been preserved, but the story has continued to be written and transmitted by word of mouth ever since. In the 20th century, two men became famous for reciting it from memory: Ta Krud and Ta Chak. The latter agreed to be recorded, but sadly died before he could recount the story in its entirety.
Cambodian written literature was thus born of folklore - whether local or from neighbouring countries - as other legends were transcribed and even translated, mainly from the late 19th century onwards. For example, Ang Duong (1796-1860) was inspired by the Thai tale Kaki Klon Suphap, about a woman of breathtaking beauty who, to her misfortune, has to contend with the desire of men, future king of Cambodia, at the age of 19, a verse melodrama entitled Neang Kakey, or the story of two Khmer princes who fell from grace, Vorvong and Sorvong, which was set down in writing by the French explorer Auguste Pavie (1847-1925). The "Cambodian Romeo and Juliet", Tum Teav, was translated into French by Étienne Aymonier in 1880. Yet, despite its roots in ancient legends, literature already knows how to reinvent itself and rub shoulders with the present, as the work of Krom Ngoy (1865-1936) perfectly demonstrates. A monk at the age of 21, he gave up his first vocation to make a living from his poetic talent, traveling the countryside to sing, accompanied by his zither(kse diev). His reputation was such that he was invited as far afield as Thailand, and the École française d'Extrême-Orient transcribed his work. His work soon moved away from religious issues and turned to everyday concerns, from the poverty of ordinary people to agricultural work, from choosing a spouse to the domination of foreigners. His influence was such that his texts are still taught in schools.
Rim Kin, who was born in 1911 and died in 1959, is considered the father of modern literature. While his childhood education took place as usual in a Buddhist pagoda in Svay Dangkum, under the protectorate in force at the time, he went to a French school where he passed his baccalauréat, before going on to Phnom Penh university to obtain a teaching diploma. In parallel with his studies, he nurtured a literary ambition that did not materialize until 1938, when he published Sophat, a first novel that ensured him a huge following, both in Cambodia and abroad, and is still available from L'Harmattan. Like Krom Ngoy, her work is now a classic taught in the classroom. We could also mention her contemporary, Makhali-Phâl (1908-1965), who left Cambodia for France at the age of 7 but drew inspiration from her native country in her writings, with some success since La favorite de dix ans (1940) was widely acclaimed and Narayana ou celui qui se meut sur les eaux (to be read in the BNF's virtual library, Gallica) received the Académie française's Prix Lange in 1944. Although the political situation began to worsen in the 50s, literary production remained favorable, with 500 novels and short stories published between 1954 and 1969. However, wars and dictatorships sounded the death knell for this effervescence.
Mourning and rebirth
It is said that 20% of the Cambodian population died during the period of Democratic Kampuchea (1975-1979), when the Khmer Rouge took power under the leadership of Pol Pot. Like all periods of massacre that have plunged the world into mourning, this one gave birth to a specific literature whose cathartic power is not an empty word. One among a thousand, Chuth Khay, born in 1940 in Koh Somrong, recounts in Comment j'ai menti aux Khmers rouges (L'Harmattan) how he went through this period of purges and deportations like " a dead man on probation ", obliged to lie about his identity and his duties as interim dean of the law faculty to avoid death. A contributor to the Nokor Thom newspaper created by Soth Polin - the acclaimed author of the autobiographical novel L'Anarchiste (éditions La Table ronde, 1980, unfortunately out of print) and the short story collection Génial et génital (Le Grand os éditeur, 2017) - his fate was the same: he became a cab driver in Paris, where he went into exile. As for Pal Vannarirak, she worked for Pol Pot's government... in the department dedicated to censorship, writing at night and selling under the table texts she knew full well would cost her in reprisals, much to the dismay of her husband who tried to stop her. Her determination paid off, as her work won awards in the 90s. Khun Srun, whose L'Accusé was published by Editions du Sonneur in 2018, was not so lucky: he was assassinated in 1978. For his part, Rithy Panh is certainly one of the best-known Cambodian writers in France, but he is also a renowned film director. In his highly autobiographical books(L'Élimination, L'Image manquante), he recounts his youth under the Khmer Rouge, when he was 11 years old when they came to power in 1975. In 2020, he published La paix avec les morts(Grasset: Peace with the Dead), a book he co-wrote with Christophe Bataille, who accompanied him to Cambodia in search of his family's graves. The power of memories is just as strong in D'abord, ils ont tué mon père (J'ai lu), by Loung Ung, who saw his family decimated and had to flee under perilous conditions. Born in 1977, Mey Son Sotheary is part of a new generation of writers who are more interested in contemporary Cambodian society, although this does not prevent them from tackling the problems it faces head-on.
