History History

Bifaces, stone tools carved on both sides to sharpen the point, have been found in Nagaur in the Marwar. The Acheulean culture gives way to the Middle Paleolithic. The stone tools multiply and become more refined. They are found around Luni, Pushkar and Didwana.

During the Upper Paleolithic, settlements multiplied. The society is organized in small semi-nomadic communities of about a hundred people. The main sites are in Chittorgarh and Kota in present-day Mewar, and around the river valleys. Goose shells have been found, attesting to the adaptation of the bird to the region's climate.

The remains of a pre-Harappa city were discovered in 1952 at Kalibangan. Excavations have brought to light the remains of a fortified citadel and a low city made of mud bricks as well as a ploughed field. The pottery found on the site is different from that of the Harappa civilization. From -1 500, the Harappa civilization declines.

The Aryans, a people from Iran, arrived in northwestern India. They gradually colonized Kashmir and Punjab. They introduced a new religion written in their sacred book, the Veda. In search of new pastures for their herds, they gradually descended towards the Indo-Gangetic plain.

During this period, the Aryans colonize all of northern India. Small kingdoms of the hereditary monarchy type were established. Democracy was exercised within a council of sages(sabha) and a popular assembly(samiti). Women had the same rights as men. Leisure activities such as chariot racing and dice games were introduced. The development of iron tools allowed for the development of agriculture.

The end of the Vedic period saw the emergence of the caste system. Varna divided society into 4 categories. Brahmins are priests and intellectuals (teachers, lawyers, etc.). The Kshatriyas are those responsible for administering and defending the population (kings, nobles and warriors). The Vaishyas include merchants, traders, farmers and shepherds. The Shudra caste is made up of serfs. Women lost their political rights and child marriages began. Relics from this period have been found around Jaipur, Jodhpur, Bharatpur and Jhunjhunu.

The end of the Vedic period is characterized by profound political changes. The kingdoms called Mahajanpada were strengthened and expanded. Rajasthan was occupied by three large distinct kingdoms: the Matsya (Jaipur, Alwar and Bharatpur), the Saurasena (Dholpur, Karauli, Bharatpur up to the Yamuna), the Kuru (north of Alwar). The invasion of Alexander the Great, even if he did not reach Rajasthan, caused many changes. Refugees from the neighboring Punjab modified the power relationships and oligarchies and tribal republics were created and destroyed according to the wars.

A powerful dynasty is set up, the Maurya. They will progressively place the whole Indian subcontinent under their control, with the exception of the southern tip. Buddhism becomes the tutelary religion and temples are built everywhere. The Bijak ki-Parahi temple at Bairat in Rajasthan dates back to the 3rd century B.C. It is the oldest known Buddhist building in India to date. Only the base of the circular stupa and its surrounding wall remain.

The longevity of the Maurya dynasty ensures the development of India and Rajasthan. The empire was based on games of alliance and submission with regional or local kingdoms. The stability of the kingdom was challenged by a new emerging dynasty, the Gupta. In 351, Samudra Gupta defeated King Rudrasimha II who ruled over southern Rajasthan.

The whole of Rajasthan was conquered by the Guptas at the end of the 4th century. Numerous sculptures corresponding to this period have been found throughout Rajasthan (Jaipur, Osiyan, Mandore, Dungarpur, Alwar, Udaipur...) and testify to a total occupation of the region. The temple of Dara Mukandra in the vicinity of Kota or that of Shiva at Charchoma date from this period. The invasion of the Hun king Torman sealed the fate of the Gupta dynasty and he occupied an area from the western Himalayas to Rajasthan.

The collapse of the Gupta dynasty gave rise to new kingdoms administered by Rajput rulers. Smaller states recognized the suzerainty of the powerful Marwar, Mewar and Jaisalmer. The borders of these powers evolved as battles were fought and arrangements made with Rajput clan chiefs. The arrival of the Mughals put an end to internal quarrels, and the Muslim emperors became the common enemy.

In 1561, the Mughal emperor Akbar conquered all of northern India. He then turned to Rajasthan, on its western flank. One by one, he rallied the princely states to his empire, either by diplomatic means or by war, and in 1576, the whole of Rajputana was rallied to the Mughal banner. In 1569, he had his new capital built at Fatehpur Sikri, to mark the advance of his hold on Rajasthan. He introduced the mansabdari system of administration, based on a "points" hierarchy. The more points the holder has, the higher his rank in the administration. The various Rajput rulers were given high rank and continued to administer their states.

The Mughal power is maintained until the death of the emperor Aurangzeb in 1707. Desiring to conquer the south of India, Aurangzeb clashed with the Marathas and his power weakened. New conflicts broke out in Rajasthan giving birth to new kingdoms or regenerating old ones. This is the case of the kingdom of Sikar (1687), Bharatpur (1707) or Jaipur (1727).

The disintegration of the Mughal empire led to a northward ascent of the Marathas. First they seized Gujarat, then the province of Malwa, before setting their sights on Rajasthan. On July 17, 1734, Rajput chiefs signed an alliance agreement at Hurda to repel the Maratha invasion. Succession disputes within certain kingdoms led to alliances of opportunity with the Marathas.

The British East India Company extended its dominance in India. The Rajput kings saw this advance northward as a blessed opportunity to get rid of the Marathas once and for all. During this period, all Rajput kings signed trade and protection treaties with the company. They ceded to the British the administration of their external affairs and allowed them to meddle in their internal affairs.

In 1857, a mutiny broke out in Meerut (Uttar Pradesh) following a bad rumor: cartridges, which could be opened with the teeth, were said to be greased with pig or cow tallow, unfit for consumption by Muslims or Hindus. Meerut's battalions attacked the British Company soldiers, and soon the whole of northern India was ablaze. The Rajput maharajas succeeded in supporting the popular uprising taking shape in their territory. In 1877, Queen Victoria took direct control of power and added a new colony to her empire, which she named Raj.

The treaties signed with the British made the maharajas very rich. As a result, the maharajas willingly conceded their powers to the Crown and showed unwavering loyalty to it. On the other hand, the farmers were impoverished and had to pay two tributes: one to the raja, the other to the British. Spontaneous rebellion movements began to spring up and a political consciousness emerged. In 1885, the Congress party was founded by Indian intellectuals educated in the best English universities and having discovered the currents of democracy.

Gandhi joined the Congress party in 1915. He undertook peaceful resistance and led dazzling actions in Bihar and Gujarat. At the same time, political councils sprang up across the princely states, particularly in Rajasthan, giving rise to the Praja Mandal movement. This movement called for an end to feudalism and colonialism, and the granting of fundamental rights to all the people. The first Praja Mandal was formed in Jaipur in 1931.

At the end of the Second World War, the British chose the Labour Party to lead the country. Jawaharlal Nehru, leader of the Congress Party, took the opportunity to begin negotiations for Indian independence. A rift developed between unionist Hindus and separatist Muslims. In 1947, Lord Mountbatten was appointed Viceroy of India, with the task of speeding up the process of independence. Independence was proclaimed on August 15, 1947, creating the independent states of India and Pakistan.

One by one, the 19 rulers of Rajasthan joined the Indian Union. In exchange, they retained their titles, lands, revenues and palaces. However, the kings ruled their kingdoms with little ambition, undertaking no reforms. It was not until 1970 that Indira Gandhi put an end to the feudal system. The maharajas were asked to surrender their titles and privileges. If they wished to participate in political life, they would have to stand for election. Many of them migrated to Delhi.

Indira Gandhi begins a "Green Revolution", a major campaign of irrigation, selection of high-yield cereals and introduction of fertilizers and pesticides. A 445 km canal was dug in the Thar Desert to bring water from the Himalayan foothills. Small farmers in this desert region of Rajasthan can now cultivate their land without depending on the monsoon. But the impoverishment of the soil after 40 years of intensive farming is once again putting them on the brink of bankruptcy. At the same time, the maharajas transformed Rajasthan into a charming tourist destination. They converted their palaces into luxury hotels. They ceded land to the Indian Railways to open new lines, and new roads were laid out to attract the ever-increasing numbers of foreign tourists. Narendra Modi, an avowed nationalist, wins elections with his BJP party three times in a row from 2014. He is speeding up India's transformation while stepping up the pressure on religious minorities.