The Chinese origins of silk
In 1926, Chinese archaeologists unearthed a cocoon in a Neolithic burial site in Shanxi province, enabling them to date the invention of silk to the reign of Emperor Huangdi (between 2700 and 2575 BC). But thirty years later, a new discovery, this time in Zhejiang, uncovered silk fabrics in a tomb dated to almost 5000 BC. These pieces are still, to this day, the oldest known silk pieces in the world. But since legends are more tenacious than archaeological discoveries, let's return to the Chinese vision of silk invention. The emperor Huangdi's wife, named Leizu, was strolling under a mulberry tree with a cup of hot tea in her hand when she noticed that a cocoon that had fallen into the boiling water had begun to unwind. The empress, seduced by the quality and fineness of the thread, decided to start breeding these caterpillars to weave herself garments of unrivalled quality. The secret of silk manufacture would be jealously guarded for centuries to come!
Silk in contact with the West
The Romans discovered silk through the banners of their Parthian enemies at the Battle of Carrhes. The terror caused by the nomads' banners in the Roman ranks can be considered one of the first psychological victories in history. Military confrontation was followed by trade, and the Romans soon became avid consumers of the precious fabric. This marked the beginning of the Silk Road: a long network of roads, paths and trails across every conceivable landform was set up to import from China to Italy the fabrics that the Roman nobility craved. To reach Rome, silk had to cross thousands of kilometers of hostile terrain, leave the Chinese Empire, cross the steppes and deserts where nomadic raids were rampant, cross Persia and then the Mediterranean. By the time he reached Rome, the product had become so valuable that the flight of capital was out of control.
The "not just" Silk Road
By the end of the first century AD, silk was already making its way from Xi'an to Antioch, then across the Mediterranean. Alongside silk came many other luxury products: spices, tea, cinnamon, animals, precious metals... Central Asia, between China and the West, India and Russia, became the beating heart of this axis, at the crossroads of the fur, lapis lazuli and spice routes that were already criss-crossing the region. Long caravans made up of dozens or hundreds of horses, mules or Bactrian camels, depending on the terrain to be tackled, enabled trade to develop in the towns and oases, but also exchanges: scientific discoveries, thoughts and religious beliefs also circulated along this Silk Road.
A new player: Islam
As a new religion emerged in the Arabian Peninsula that was to change the face of the world, three main players controlled the Silk Road from Xi'an to Byzantium: the Chinese of the Tang dynasty, the Sassanid Persians and the Eastern Roman Empire, which held the gates to the Mediterranean. After Mohammed's death in 632, Islam swept through the region, first under the Umayyads, then the Abbasids. Soon, the two giants, the Abbasid Arabs and the Tang Chinese, came into contact with each other and fought for control of the Silk Road and the wealth that continued to flow along it. In 753, after many fruitless confrontations, the Battle of Talas in present-day Kyrgyzstan established the borders between the two empires. Victory went to the Arabs, but their losses were such that they could go no further. The Abbasids now controlled Central Asia and the precious Transoxiana, while the Chinese retained the Tarim basin and the eastern part of the Silk Road. In Kazakhstan, the Arabs mainly control the region just north of the Syr Darya, including Almaty and Shymkent. Beyond this, the steppe remained the domain of nomadic tribes, who would only gradually convert to Islam as contacts - both commercial and military - increased between the two civilizations.
The Golden Age
Three centuries of prosperity for China under the Tang dynasty (618-907), from their capital Xi'an, and the stability of the gigantic Abbasid empire until the Mongol conquest, enabled the Silk Road to develop like never before. The Chinese and Arabs, aware of the riches this extraordinary trade route would bring them, did their utmost to secure the routes and multiply the number of branches to regions they did not control: Mongolia, India, Constantinople. Peace and trade enabled cities to grow. Bukhara and Samarkand, in present-day Uzbekistan, are the best-known, but Almaty also became a stopover on the Silk Road, and is mentioned in numerous works from the 12th and 13th centuries.
In 1218, after his conquest of China, Genghis Khan took over the whole of Central Asia. When he died in 1227, he left behind an empire of 26 million km², inhabited by over 100 million people. The Mongols were masters of China, India, Central Asia, Siberia, Russia as far as Kiev and Persia as far as Syria! For the first time in its history, the Silk Road from Xi'an to Constantinople was controlled by a single empire. An empire in which the pax mongolica reigned, allowing trade to rise from the ashes, but also explorers, missionaries and ambassadors to travel safely through the Mongol empire.
An unexpected renaissance
The time of the great nomadic empires came to an end with that of Tamerlane at the very beginning of the 15th century. The confrontation between nomads and sedentaries turned in favor of the latter, and the last nomadic tribes in the steppes of Kazakhstan were forcibly sedentarized by Stalin in the 1930s. Since the independence of the Central Asian republics, nomadism has re-emerged, particularly in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. At the same time, the Silk Road is also making a comeback. Strategically placed between China and Russia, Kazakhstan is a coveted geopolitical space on both sides. For a long time, the Central Asian region was closed to the outside world, and its only links with Beijing were via Moscow. After independence, Kazakhstan initially remained very close to Moscow and looked to Beijing only with mistrust, but gradually detached itself from one to the benefit of the other. China, which is investing massively in Central Asia through diplomacy but above all through the creation of banks, roads and other logistics, has many trump cards up its sleeve, and a fixed idea in its head: to breathe new life into the Silk Road. But in what form?
Silk Road 2.0
The first form of cooperation between China and Kazakhstan materialized with the creation of an oil pipeline network between Xinjiang and the Caspian Sea. Trade worked so well that in 2013, in Astana, Chinese President Xi Jinping launched the idea of an "economic belt" of the Silk Road (Belt and Road Initiative), which would pass through Central Asia. A project designed to flatter its neighbors, of course, and in particular Kazakhstan and its subsoil, the riches of which China has its eye on. After decades of being closed off from the world, the prospect of Central Asia finding itself at the heart of a "great game", at the crossroads of world trade, is very appealing. And it doesn't matter if, commercially speaking, Central Asia starts importing Chinese products on a massive scale and exporting only a tiny percentage in return. Central Asia needs development, and China is the only country to offer it on a platter. The question now is how to translate this new Silk Road into reality, and how to make it part of the landscape.
A worldwide network
Ten years after Xi Jinping's speech in Astana, how far has the New Silk Road come? Over 150 countries have signed up to the project, no less. And far from following a historic route between Beijing and Rome, the Silk Road is spreading its web across the globe: the 150 members are in Asia, Europe, Africa and even America. Everywhere, under this new label, Chinese-financed infrastructures are being developed: roads, railroads, ports... Everything is being done the Chinese way: in excess, without counting the cost. The new heart of this Silk Road is Khorgos, the border post between China and Kazakhstan, the first to open between the two countries in 1983: back then, there was a customs officer and dunes! Since then, China has invested massively to turn it into a modern terminal where millions of tons of goods ready to leave for Europe can be stored: cars, telephones, clothes, textiles... Some of these goods will remain on the final market, while others will be shipped to more distant continents.
Kazakhstan at the heart of the world
Kazakhstan is the starting point for two Silk Road routes: one via Russia, the other via the Caspian. Since the outbreak of war in Ukraine, European sanctions have concentrated, but not slowed down, all traffic on the Caspian route, giving a new impetus to the Kazakh ports on the sea: Aktau and Atyrau. From there, Turkey now captures all the flows and brings them to Europe. In just 15 days, the Silk Road was complete! At the heart of this new route, Kazakhstan has pulled off a miracle: from being a landlocked country, it has become the nerve center of world trade. It may not be at the heart of it, but it certainly has the arteries. And the country that so feared the ambitions of its Russian neighbor now finds itself strengthened, backed by a powerful ally, replacing Moscow as the country's leading trading partner. The new Kazakh president speaks fluent Chinese, thousands of Kazakh students sit on Chinese university benches every year, and a tour of the country's bazaars reveals the impact of China on Kazakh consumption. At the forefront of all countries, Kazakhstan is experiencing first-hand what is known as Chinese soft power. And perhaps, one day, Astana and Almaty will be the new Bukhara and Samarkand..
