Materials and construction principles
Most of the building materials in Japan are of plant origin. The most used material for traditional buildings and houses is softwood: pine, fir, cypress, cedar. Hardwoods (chestnut, hazelnut, oak) are used for furniture. The work of wood allowed the creation of the technique of the framework. The walls are not load-bearing and distribute the space according to the needs. The panels are sliding (shôji or fusuma) or removable. Their filling is made of mulberry leaves which let the light pass through. Finally, bamboo is used for the wooden laths, which are then coated with a mixture of clay, sand and chopped straw to make the walls of the house. Sometimes hydrated lime from oyster shells is used. Another key element of the traditional house: the tatami mats. Soft and resistant, they are made of beaten and pressed rice straw, covered with a woven grass mat. The dimension of the tatami is fixed in space by two columns, the ken, that is to say on average 1,86 m X 0,93 m. Two tatamis constitute a square of a surface of a tsubo is 3,46 m².
From the Muromachi period (between 1336 and 1573), one sees appearing a standardization which will not only modify the conception of the space but also give him the very foundation of its aesthetics and its originality. The tatami, of similar dimension in all Japan, will allow the modulation of the space. One builds on piles, generally on a terrace beforehand prepared. The building is horizontal to better immerse itself in the nature. The engawa serves as a link between the dwelling and the outside and inside world. Whether it is a wooden floor, a bamboo floor or a veranda, the engawa is a fundamental transitional space that materializes the passage from the outside to the inside of the house. Between the engawa and the adjacent rooms, the shoji stand. The use of these sliding panels and gangways also allows the connection between the exterior and the interior, as well as the capture and diffusion of light. This distribution enhances the natural materials and exposes them to the weather, giving them a pure patina. While Japanese architecture has borrowed heavily from the Chinese system in the adoption of roofing principles, it has turned away from it insofar as it has abandoned the rigor of the elements of Chinese geomancy. It is likely the Shintō-Buddhist syncretism that allows the Japanese to escape and create their own architecture. All Japanese subtlety is focused on the refusal of the monumental and a particular balance between spaces and volumes.
Later constructions
Later transformations use a dissymmetry of the cross section to create a space for ritual purposes for the faithful. In this case, a structure was built independently of the original one to create a new space in front of the holy image. To maintain the symmetrical construction of the roof, two innovations were used:
A double system of beams. The lower beams rest on columns that are now free not to conform to a symmetry about the longitudinal axis. Higher up, the beams are supported by columns that rest on the lower beams arranged without regard to the position of the columns.
The connection between the columns is based on the size of the beams and columns until they are adjusted. Similarly, this empirical method is used for the way of the wedged corbels that support the eaves. To carry out these three-way frames, the columns must be reinforced. The beams join the columns in both directions. If the purlins are supported by evenly spaced columns, the grids of support points are free. By using three joists running the length of the building and beams connecting the columns in both directions, Japanese framing is free from Chinese framing.
Later on, the assembly processes allowed the development of corbelling by managing corbels and wedges and the construction of the roof angles in a fair and rational way. The dimensions of the sanctuaries, temples and houses obey the same laws: the kendōnt. The local dimension varies between 1.80 m and 1.90 m. The interior space is calculated in ken squared which, if we apply the tatami to 1.85 m, makes 3.45 m² approximately. The wood is left in its natural state which allows to admire its grain, to patinate it with the bad weather and to resist to the temperature changes and to the humidity. Moreover, the Japanese use the play of wood for positive purposes: they split the pillars so that when they swell they do not deform and can follow the movements of the ground during earthquakes.
Residential architecture
The codification of architectural elements intensifies from the Nara period (between 710 and 794) and then from the Heian period (794-1192) in Kyōto. It takes the name of Shinden or Shinden-zukuri. The residence, reserved for the great noble families, consists of a main building (shinden) surrounded on three sides by annex buildings (tai no ya) connected to the main building by passageways or corridors. In front of the residence is a pond with islands connected one by one by bridges. All these constructions obey the Chinese geomancy. The streams of pure water that feed the pond must be oriented along an unchanging northwest-southeast axis. The floors of these buildings are made of wood and the walls are made of shutters (shitomido) which are placed or moved at will according to the seasons. The total area of these facilities can reach more than one hectare. In addition to the main buildings, there are pavilions connected by covered galleries and guard posts. The whole complex is entirely enclosed and pierced by several doors arranged at the cardinal points. The southern one was the main door. Today, these residences have completely disappeared. All that remains are testimonies of them on scrolls (emakimono) dating from the Heian period. On these illuminated scrolls, drawings and texts alternate. During the Kamakura period (1185 to 1333) a particular style of samurai residence was developed in the style of a country inn with a main building located on an enclosed area. On either side are lean-tos for the kitchen and horses. Behind it is a garden whose style follows the main lines of the shinden style, but which, little by little, is inspired by Zen gardens favorable to contemplation and meditation.
Shoin-zukuri style. From the Muromachi period (between 1336 and 1573), important modifications occur: the appearance of the tokonoma as a symbolic alcove and the standardization of the tatamis. The architecture so characteristic of the tea houses (sukiya) also appears. The shoin-zukuri style, of Chinese inspiration, was applied to the aristocratic residences of the late 16th century. The square plan is oriented north-south with the main entrance to the south. The doorway (chū-mon) opens onto the main building through a veranda that surrounds this construction. In the past, the volume of the central pavilion was divided by screens. Now it is divided into several rooms by sliding panels. In place of the hanging wooden doors are installed shōji (the sliding panels made of light wood with squares and voids covered with translucent white paper to filter the light and cause a backlighting effect), protected from the elements by reticulated shutters made of fine bamboo. Tatami mats cover the floors.
Buddhist architecture
It is from Korea that Japan borrows the various elements of temple architecture. First, a pavilion where images and pious sculptures are installed, the kondō, then a pavilion with didactic purposes, the kōdō, reserved for religious teaching and sermons, a pagoda, and generally monastic quarters that act as an enclosure.
The oldest Japanese Buddhist temple is the Hōryū-ji, at Ikaruga near Nara. The Japanese change the primitive north-south Chinese-Korean axis while retaining their building system. This temple today represents the oldest wooden structure in the world. Built in the early seventh century by Shotoku Taishi, who was very active in spreading Buddhism, the 2,300 architectural structures of Hōryū-ji immerse the visitor in another era, that of Asuka-era Japan 1,300 years ago. This quadrangle is divided into 2 spaces. First, the Saiin Garan (western part) houses the five-tiered pagoda (Gojū-no-Tō) 35 meters high, it is the oldest in the country. One enters the Kondō, the sublime main building built on stone terraces through a large gate, the Chumon. Observe its double flared roof, covered with tiles, with curved edges. A few minutes' walk away is the eastern part: the Tōin Garan, the oldest octagonal building in Japan which is organized around the Song Pavilion (Yumedono). This pavilion takes its name from a legend that a golden Buddha appeared to Shotoku Taishi in his dream. See the statue of Kuse Kannon, built in the image of the prince and considered a masterpiece of Buddhist art in the 7th century. Kept secret for a long time, it is in a remarkable state of preservation.
Subsequently, whether in the construction of the Tōshodaiji or the Tōdai-ji, a scrupulous orthodoxy is respected in the arrangement of the buildings in relation to the Sino-Korean axis. In Nara, the former imperial capital, the majestic Tōdai-ji (Great Eastern Temple) was commissioned in 743 by Emperor Shômu (701-756) to protect his people threatened by epidemics. Listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, it is the highest wooden covered building in the world. The gigantic wooden pillars (47 meters high) and the bronze Vairocana seated Buddha (the largest in Japan with its 18 meters high) of Daibutsu-den (the Great Buddha Hall) are impressive. Rebuilt several times, the current appearance of Tōdai-ji dates from Edo period (1603-1868) additions.
East of Kyōto, even before it became the new capital (from 794 to 1868), the imposing architecture of Kiyomizudera temple, built on the mountainside in 780, captivates the eye. Burned and rebuilt nine times, this "great water temple" takes its name from the pure and blessed waters of Otowa waterfall and combines Buddhist monuments and Shinto shrines. Admire the wooden platform of the temple which floats 13 meters above the hill and offers a beautiful view of maple and cherry trees. Once through the main gate, around the pavilion, several temples are set up as well as pagodas and the Otowa waterfall whose waters have several blessings. Go to the Jishu-jinja Shinto shrine dedicated to the deity of love and dating. In front of the shrine, with your eyes closed, if you can find your way between the two stones, 18 meters apart, there is a great chance that you will meet love.
In order to establish the buildings of the Tendai and Shingon sects, the architecture will break free from its models: use of the contour lines in the mountains, new axes of symmetry and new perspectives. With the new capital and the development of the cult of Amida, several temples were oriented towards the east to face the western paradise. This is the case The construction styles of Buddhist temples fall into three trends: wa-yō (Japanese), kara-yō (Chinese) and finally tenjiku-yō.
The wa-yō style is more concerned with the Kamakura period: low slope of the roofs and horizontally aligned joists, square windows and the use of props to consolidate the attachment of the beams between the pillars.
During the Kamakura and Muromachi periods, the plan of the temples evolved towards a dissymmetry organized around a desire to emphasize the liturgical practice of the new Buddhist sects. This asymmetry, marked by the spacing of the columns, suggests another form of architecture that will take advantage of the roof structure and the effects of the stacking of standardized brackets. In 1199, the Japanese built the nandaimon (the great southern gate) framed by two statues of benevolent kings from Tōdai-ji. The supports for the corbels run through the main pillars, the joists supporting the canopies are used in a fan pattern to distribute the forces, and the dice for the entablatures are all the same size. This standardization became common during the Kamakura period. This stripped down, fast-paced style of construction takes the name tenjiku-yō.
The kara-yō or Chinese style is used especially in the building of Zen temples in combination with the wa-yō style. The corners of the roofs are accentuated, the joists are also used in a fan shape, and the beams connecting the pillars adopt the ebi-koryō, or "crawfish" shape. The lintel part of the windows is curved.
Shintō architecture
The first foundations of its architecture were laid during the Yayoi period (300 BC to 250 AD) with the construction of a certain type of granary. The pillars are deeply sunken, the roofs are double-pitched and the partitions are made of juxtaposed boards. This style of architecture used for kura (granaries) was later transformed into azekura-zukuri process in order to build large shrines, such as Ise-Jingu and Izumo Taisha. Thereafter, eleven different styles mark a progression in the control of space, strongly influenced by Buddhist building processes.
The Taisha style for the Izumo shrine, with a side entrance accessible by a staircase.
The Shimmei style, with an entrance on one of the long sides as in Ise.
The Ōtori style, with the entrance in the front gable.
The Kasuga and Nagare styles with roofs and canopies over the gable entrance and curved roofs.
The Hachiman style, which joins two rooms connected by their curved roofs with a common gutter.
The Gongen style, which comes into its own in the 17th century and whose most prestigious representative remains the shrine of Iyeasu Tokugawa, the Tōshōgū, in Nikkō.
At the foot of the Kyoto mountains, don't miss the temple of Kinkaku-ji - Golden Pavilion or "Rokuon-ji" (its official name) built in the late 14th century. Far from the sobriety of Buddhist architecture, 2 floors of this temple are covered with pure gold leaves. Only the first floor is built in dark wood. This golden jewel whose beauty is reflected in the calm waters of the pond keeps the relics of Buddha hidden from view. You can admire 3 types of architecture: the first floor (Hō-sui-in) which follows the shinden-zukuri style, the same as that of Heian period palaces. The second floor (Chō-on-dō) observes the buke-zukuri style of samurai houses. Finally, the top floor (Kukkyō-chō) respects the Karayō style, which is that of Zen temples. Atop the shingled roof, a golden fenghuang (a phoenix) appears to tower over visitors. A national emblem, this historic monument of ancient Kyoto is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Also in Kyoto, but to the west, in Hyōgo Prefecture, don't miss the defensive architecture of Himeji Castle. A strategic building, the first fortifications were erected in the 15th century and completed in 1609 under the orders of the daimyo (feudal lord) Ikeda Terumasa. This bright white fortress with its whitewashed walls is also known as the White Heron Castle (Hakujoro). It is the largest castle in the country and the best preserved of the 12 wooden castles. This site houses more than 80 buildings connected by winding paths that form a labyrinth created to prevent enemy armies from reaching the heart of the structure. The western wall (Nishi-no-maru) is a must-see for its superb view of the main keep. Venture into the narrow inner lanes before climbing the 6 steep floors of the keep (46 meters high) which become narrower and narrower as you go. The second floor is 550m2 (covered with 330 tatami mats) while the top floor is 115m2. On the top floor, you will discover a sanctuary. The height allows to observe Himeji castle from above and to admire the city in the distance. During Sakura, more than 1,000 cherry trees are in bloom in the castle park. National treasure of medieval Japan, this castle was the first monument to be classified as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
The wabi and the sabi
Sabi is an aesthetic that was developed during the Muromachi period. It is the concept of rigor and sobriety which is imposed in relation to appearance and exuberance: what is important is the essence of things and not their appearance. This aesthetic requirement is found in the tea ceremony (cha-no-yu) and in the architecture of the tea pavilions (chashitsu). The utensils used must also meet this requirement. One can emphasize the sense of resignation in the concept of sabi. As early as the 12th century, it was developed in literature and poetry. It is the poet Bashō who brings it to its peak.
Wabi designates detachment, a kind of languor, perhaps even a touch of melancholy. This feeling, like sabi, was developed in the Kamakura era and continued as an aesthetic component. It approaches rusticity, but calls for a movement of solitude and simplicity. It should aim at the pure and disinterested beauty of things.
These two concepts, sabi and wabi, are joined by yūgen, which is the attempt to cover things with a delicate film of mystery and beauty. This mystery can also oscillate between sadness and melancholy. It is in the Nō, from the fifteenth century on, that this sense of suggestion is worked on more than its description. Sixteenth-century writers emphasized it with allusive touches that caress the essence of things. It is more a harmonic concept than the delicacy of a thing. In the art of painting, we also find with the yojō this suggestive spirit. We also speak of shibui, a refinement that hides behind an apparent banality. In literature, shibui, wabi and sabi are called heitammi, when one has overcome all unnecessary things or mannerisms.
