The origins
India's multi-millennia of architectural history can be traced back to astonishing prehistoric rock shelters. Among these, those of Bhimbetka, near Bhopal, are the most impressive. Carved into the heart of huge sandstone outcrops, these shelters also feature traces of wall paintings depicting lifestyles still perpetuated by the village communities living around the site. The first agricultural settlements date back to 7000 BC, but it wasn't until 3000 BC that a genuine urbanized culture developed, that of the Indus civilization, also known as the Harappan civilization, after its main center Harappa. Cities of this era were orthogonal in plan, organized around a political, religious and administrative center set in an elevated area above the other artisanal and residential quarters. The vast mud-brick granaries found here bear witness to centralized agricultural management, while the reservoir, drainage and water disposal systems illustrate a clear concern for public hygiene. The city of Dholavira in Gujarat is the finest example. It features a castle surrounded by powerful fortifications, a ceremonial center and streets lined with dwellings of varying sizes, testifying to an already highly hierarchical society. Most of the city's buildings are made of stone masonry with a mud-brick core, a sophisticated technique ensuring great stability.
Buddhist heritage
The birthplace of Buddhism, India is home to many architectural treasures reflecting this spiritual and religious heritage. Buddhist buildings can be divided into three types. Stupas, monumental reliquaries, are directly inherited from the tradition of megalithic burial mounds, consisting of a burial mound surrounded by a palisade. Most often made of painted brick or decorated with historiated stones (decorative elements evoking "narrative" scenes), these hemispherical domes rest on a circular platform and are surmounted by the relic chamber, usually square and made of stone, and a sort of belvedere on which rest the "parasols" symbolizing sanctity. Promenades are built into the platform to enable worshippers to perform the ritual of circumambulation (walking around the stupa in a clockwise direction). The whole is surrounded by balustrades(vedika) pierced by porticoes(torana), all of which are generally elegantly sculpted and decorated. Sanctuaries, or chaitya, are reminiscent of Western churches and their basilical plan. In fact, they feature a central nave delimited by rows of pillars and flanked by lateral half-aisles, rounding off like an apse at its rear end where a small dome-shaped stupa is located. Originally made of wood, the surviving sanctuaries are made of stone. Some were even carved directly into the rock, as far back as the 3rd millennium BC. With their barrel-vaulted ceilings and wide horseshoe-shaped openings at the front, these rock sanctuaries are impressive for the scale of their proportions and the beauty of their decoration. Monasteries are true cultural and religious centers. The so-called excavated monasteries bear witness to great architectural skill, with dozens of caves housing sanctuaries, chapels and communal dwellings. The monasteries of the Indus Valley, on the other hand, are generally built high above a village. The upper part houses the temples(thakang), the great assembly hall(dukhang) and the temple of the terrifying tutelary deities(gonkhang). The lower part, on the mountainside, is dotted with monks' dwellings. Among the treasures of Buddhism, don't miss the astonishing legacy of the Maurya empire and its most famous ruler, Ashoka, who had his ethical and spiritual code engraved in rock or on monolithic pillars(stambha) and initiated the construction of the Sanchi complex, housing sumptuous palaces, temples and monasteries. Other not-to-be-missed sites include the Ajanta and Ellora caves, which combine monasteries, sanctuaries and monolithic temples carved into the rock; the incredible ruins of the University of Nalanda, where superb vihara (residential and educational buildings) stand amidst stupas and sanctuaries; and Ladakh's numerous monasteries known as gompas.
Hindu splendors
Hindu architecture applies the canons of the Vastu Shastra, a science of architecture that lays down immutable principles of symmetry, directional alignments and the circulation of flows and energies. The first temples, associated with Brahmanic cults, were small, simple structures consisting of a flat-roofed cella (chamber of the deity). Gradually, however, temples grew in size and complexity, with false roofs in a variety of forms. It was mainly under the Gupta Empire (3rd-6th century) that the main principles of Hindu architecture were developed, with temples reproducing the order of the cosmos. Most temples are built on stone or granite platforms, with steps or tiers carved into them to provide access to the holy site. Worship itself takes place in a small sanctuary at the heart of the temple, known as the garbhagriha (matrix chamber). The passage from the sacred to the profane can be seen in the organization of the space: the faithful pass, in a skilful interlacing of courtyards and corridors, from spaces open to all and richly decorated, to the more sombre and austere holy of holies. Circumambulation areas are also designed to enable the faithful to perform the ritual walk around the sanctuary. The temple itself is preceded by one or more mandapas, pavilions often with pyramidal roofs supported by a series of pillars. Enclosures protect these temples, which have become veritable religious complexes. But it's the gopura, a monumental gate-tower integrated into the enclosure, and the vimana, the sanctuary's raised roof, that are particularly eye-catching. In the north, following the codes of the Nagara style, the sanctuary tower features a sikhara or conical spiral with curvilinear ridges and a finial decorated with an amalaka, a stone in the shape of a fluted disc or ribbed stone cushion. In the south, temples follow Dravidian precepts and feature multi-storey pyramidal vimanas; while their gopuras are the object of great decorative attention and are covered with thousands of colorful sculptures and paintings. Among the jewels of North India are : the monumental complex of Khajuraho, in Madhya Pradesh, whose 23 temples combine the art of composition with the finesse of sculpture; the temple of Kakatiya Rudreshwara in Telangana, a superb sandstone structure whose pyramidal vimana, built of lightweight porous bricks called floating bricks, reduces the weight of the roof structures; or the splendors of Odisha, where the Ganga dynasty built the temples of Konark and Puri. South India's masterpieces include the monumental Mahabalipuram complex, a splendor of the Pallava dynasty, combining rock sanctuaries and monolithic temples (rathas). The temples of Kerala will dazzle you with their tile-roofed sanctuaries or bronze plaques reflected in sacred basins or ponds. In Tamil Nadu, get ready for a whirlwind of sculptures and colors with the splendors of the Chola dynasty, such as the superb Brihadeesvara Temple in Thanjavur, whose main temple vimana rises 59 m high; or the Meenakshi Amman Temple in Madurai, famous for its 12 colorful gopuras covered with a multitude of representations of gods and demons. Finally, in the state of Karnataka, don't miss the superb Pattadakal complex, an astonishing blend of northern and southern traditions with its different vimana; and the incredible monumental ensemble of Hampi, capital of the last great Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar, with its temples around which were organized veritable small cities.
The advent of Islam and Mughal splendor
The earliest evidence of an Islamic presence in India are the works of Qutb ab Din Aybak, who in the 12th century created the first sultanate of Delhi. A symbol of astonishing syncretism, the Quvat al-Islam mosque is built on the platform of an ancient Hindu temple, while its qibla (space indicating the orientation of Mecca) is topped by domed volumes, also Hindu. Its red sandstone minaret is 72 m high, with a superb alternation of cylindrical and triangular ribs. Called Qutb Minar, this monumental tower was erected as a symbol of the triumph of the Muslim faith. The import of arches and domes, the importance given to symmetry and proportions, a wealth of decorative elements (calligraphic inscriptions, arabesques, floral or geometric motifs), formal innovations such as openwork stone screens(jali) or chattris (small canopied kiosks with umbelliform domed roofs) are among the great characteristics of this Islamic architecture, which is at once defensive, memorial and decorative. Discover the ancient capitals of Tughluqabad and Jahanpanah; the historic walled city of Ahmedabad; or the mosques of the Deccan. In Madhya Pradesh, particularly in Mandu, princes and sultans built grand palaces, such as the Javaz Mahal, an impressive 110 m long structure overlooking two mirrors of water. This monumental structure heralded the splendors of the Mughal dynasty. The first great edifice of the period was Humayun's tomb in Delhi, a veritable manifesto of Mughal architecture. The mausoleum is set in the center of a garden divided into 4 symmetrical parts by 2 streams intersecting at right angles, a Persian tradition known as chahar-bagh. The building also offers superb chromatic effects between red sandstone, local yellow stone, white marble inserts, terracotta brick and ceramic inlays. Balance and rationality preside over the creation of this mausoleum, whose volumes reflect the purity of the octagon. A power that would reach its apogee with the Taj Mahal. From the organization of the gardens and ponds to the alignment of the buildings, everything is designed to showcase this white marble splendor, flanked by 4 minarets and topped by a large central bulbous dome. This garden-mausoleum, with its "icy sensuality", is richly decorated, with precious stones inlaid into the marble using the pietra dura technique. Once a design had been chosen, a master craftsman would execute it in marble. The stones were then sorted, cut, chiselled, embedded and glued into the hollowed-out motifs, all of which were then polished with a soft emery. The Mughals were also masters of urban planning, as evidenced by Fatehpur Sikri, a palatial city entirely planned by Akbar and housing a superb mosque. In the Mughal tradition, great mosques are characterized by monumental iwans (vaulted portal-hall open at one end and facing the qibla) and the presence of a large, open central courtyard flanked by minarets. The Mughals were also famous for their forts, such as the Red Forts of Agra and Delhi, so named because both were protected by imposing red sandstone walls and housed palaces, mosques and gardens. A synthesis of Muslim and Hindu styles, Sikh gurdwara are representative of the late Mughal period. The most famous is the Golden Temple in Amritsar, with its lotus-blossom dome covered in gold plates and a floor so precious it can only be swept with... peacock feathers!
Royal magnificence
During the Mughal period, the independent kingdoms of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh witnessed unparalleled architectural effervescence. A superb example of planned, well-thought-out urban planning - the city is organized according to a grid plan with streets lined with colonnades whose intersections form large public squares called chaupars and divided into quarters called chowkris - Jaipur wanted to rival the Mughal cities. Its founder, Sawai Jai Singh II, endowed it with palaces and temples carved from pink sandstone, giving the city a unique identity. In Jaisalmer, it's impossible not to be dazzled by the richly sculpted oriels, balconies, verandas and arcades of the havelis, the fortified princely residences, carved in pink or yellow sandstone. In Madhya Pradesh, don't miss the great citadel of Gwalior, protected by imposing bastions and enclosures housing palaces adorned with superb bas-reliefs, carved stone panels and earthenware tiles. The citadel also boasts underground structures that once housed baths and fountains! In Gujarat, the old town of Ahmedabad has preserved its network of streets lined with sumptuous houses and often enclosed by beautiful gateways. The city has developed a unique style, inspired in particular by vernacular wooden architecture. Last but not least, there's Varanasi (Benares), one of the country's most sacred cities. The city of Shiva is famous for its ghats (90 in all!), a series of steps and tiers giving access to the Ganges, the sacred river. Each ghat has its own color (yellow, green, red...) and is overlooked by the dungeons and turrets of the havelis, whose facades are adorned with oriels, verandas and colonnades, or by temples and sanctuaries with their rich statuary.
European influences
The legacy of the Portuguese missionaries and settlers is particularly visible in Goa, nicknamed the "Rome of the East", with its wealth of convents, churches and monasteries, all in the Baroque style of movement and decorative effusion. Most of these buildings were constructed from blocks of laterite and coated with lime plaster, usually white. Another fine Portuguese heritage: the houses of Margao, with their "balcaos" or verandas featuring attractive wrought ironwork adorning colorful facades pierced by windows highlighted in white. In Pondicherry, the villas with colonnades and louvered windows in the center are legacies of the French period. But it was of course the British who left the most lasting imprint. Delhi bears the imprint of Sir Edwin Lutyens, who designed a city marked by an astonishing blend of European classicism, Hindu decorative art and Mughal landscape architecture. In the 19th century, Calcutta was the largest colonial city in the East, with impressive public buildings such as the Doric City Hall, the Gothic-inspired Supreme Court and the Corinthian-columned General Post Office. But it is undoubtedly Mumbai that astonishes most. Who could imagine that the city began as a juxtaposition of swampy, disease-infested islands? It's hard to believe when you stroll through the colonial city and its Victorian neo-Gothic gems. The city's masterpiece is the Chhatrapati Shivaji (Victoria Terminus) station. With its stone dome, turrets and rich decoration, it is a symbol of the Indo-Saracenic or Anglo-Indian style, drawing on Hindu, Mughal and Western sources. The creation of new roads and railroads also made it possible to build high-altitude resorts. The British recreated a kind of idealized English countryside in these resorts, which included cricket grounds, botanical gardens and leisure bungalows. Coimbatore, Ooty and Dharamsala (current residence of the Dalai Lama!) are among the most famous high-altitude resorts. The tea plantations of southern states like Kerala follow the same pattern. When it came to preserving India's rich heritage, the British made a radical change, moving from the outright sacking of local gems to the creation, at the end of the 19th century, of the Archeological Survey, an organization that called on numerous Indian specialists to carry out excavations and in-depth studies, and to enact heritage protection laws. The end of the English period was marked by the advent of the Art Deco style, whose clean lines were not without their decorative flair. Fine examples of this style can be seen in the residential buildings and cinemas of Mumbai's new districts, made possible by the reclamation of Backbay.
Modern and contemporary India
India's independence was accompanied by a great architectural effervescence. The government launched vast urban planning and construction campaigns. Nehru commissioned Le Corbusier to design the administrative capital of the new Punjab province: Chandigarh. Le Corbusier adapts his modernism to local climatic conditions. With brise-soleils, double-skin roofs, natural air-conditioning thanks to cooling towers and water mirrors to cool the air, Le Corbusier laid the foundations for sustainable architecture. In terms of style, his concrete volumes became more sculptural and expressive, as shown by the Capitol Complex, whose silhouette recalls that of a man with his arm raised, the famous Modulor or harmonic system introduced by Le Corbusier. But despite all its riches, the city was a failure, Le Corbusier having designed his city and its spaces for the automobile, not for a society in which people mainly got around on foot!
The great master of concrete and light, Louis Kahn, designed the Indian Institute of Management in Ahmedabad, nicknamed the "Indian Harvard". This monumental yet spiritual building is organized around courtyards lined with simple geometric volumes, giving the premises an almost monastic atmosphere. Louis Kahn was assisted in this project by one of the great figures of Indian modernist architecture: Balkrishna Vithaldas Doshi, the first and only Indian architect to win the prestigious Pritzker Prize, the Nobel Prize for architecture. His work includes Jaipur's new planning scheme; the Aranya Low Cost Housing complex, which offers the most destitute decent housing within a community organized according to an urban design that blends public and private spaces; and Ahmedabad's Premabhai Hall. Another great figure of Indian modernism is Charles Correo, who developed an astonishing syncretism between modernity and the vernacular in such astonishing achievements as the artistic complexes of Panaji, Bhopal and Jaipur. He was also responsible for planning the new city of Navi Mumbai. At the same time, in Kerala, it was a Briton who was making a name for himself. Laurie Baker, nicknamed "the Gandhi of architecture", laid the foundations for "low-cost, ecological architecture". His material of choice is brick, which he uses to create curves and lightness. Many of his elegant creations can be seen in Trivandrum. Other leading exponents of Indian modernism include Achyut Kanvinde, who blends a functionalist approach with brutalism and borrowings from tradition, as in the ISKCON Temple in Delhi, one of the largest complexes of its kind in India. Raj Rewal, on the other hand, has developed "a modernist, heritage and humanist approach, integrating climatic constraints and local material resources". Rewal was responsible for the 1982 Asian Games Village and the Nehru Memorial Pavilion in Delhi. Since the 1990s, the country has seen an increasing number of glass and steel towers rise from the ground, such as the 280-metre World One or the 718-metre India Tower, soon to tower over Mumbai. This architecture contrasts with the gigantic shantytowns on the outskirts of the cities, where precarious dwellings are built from sheet metal. Between these two extremes, many architects are seeking a balance, advocating sustainable, responsible creations designed for all. Satprem Maini founded the Auroville Earth Institute, where he developed compressed earth bricks and stabilized earth construction techniques to create vaults and domes. These bricks are used alongside bamboo in the creations of Bijoy Jain, a leading figure in the contemporary revival. The founder of Studio Mumbai advocates architecture as an extension of nature. We owe him superb villas in the state of Maharashtra, as well as the astonishing Himalayan refuge Leiti 360, destined to return to dust as time erodes. As for the bustling technopolis of Bangalore, its futuristic buildings stand side by side with sleek vernacular architecture. The same mix of styles can be found in Hyderabad, home to India's very first LEED Platinum-certified building, the most demanding label for sustainable architecture. Complex and unique, India is not easily tamed, and few contemporary international architects have ventured there... but that was without counting on Zaha Hadid Architects and Foster + Partners. The former are working on the new Navi Mumbai international airport. The latter have unveiled a development project for Amaravati, the future capital of Andra Pradesh, conceived as an ideal city whose magisterial buildings emerge from the expanses of water that cover it!
Vernacular riches
The use of local materials adapted to the climate, the layout of private and public spaces, and the almost systematic presence of one or more courtyards are all features common to homes throughout India, even if each region has its own specificities. In mountainous regions, houses are covered with slate slabs that are extremely resistant to the elements. Desert houses feature clay walls reinforced with straw and mud, with excellent thermal properties. In the north-east, "Assam" houses have stone or brick masonry walls rising 1 m from the ground and supporting wooden frames on which panels of woven bamboo are placed and then covered with plaster or lime plaster. These structures are extremely resistant to earthquakes. In the Kutch district of Gujarat, local residents have developed "Bhunga" houses. Made of wood, bamboo and clay, these circular houses are decorated with beautiful painted motifs. Another vernacular treasure is the wooden architecture of Kerala. Erected on laterite or granite platforms or foundations, these wooden houses with their steeply pitched, multi-level tile roofs, supported by pillars, offer superb decorative work. Along the backwaters of Kerala and on the shores of Lake Dhal in Srinagar (Jammu and Kashmir), you can also discover astonishing wooden structures, between floating houses and boats, often transformed into gîtes or guest houses!
