The origins
India's multi-millennia of architectural history can be traced back to astonishing prehistoric rock shelters. Among these, those of Bhimbetka, near Bhopal, are the most impressive. Carved into the heart of huge sandstone outcrops, these shelters also feature traces of wall paintings depicting lifestyles still perpetuated by the village communities living around the site. The first agricultural settlements date back to 7000 BC, but it wasn't until 3000 BC that a genuine urbanized culture developed, that of the Indus civilization, also known as the Harappan civilization, after its main center Harappa. Cities of this era were orthogonal in plan, organized around a political, religious and administrative center set in an elevated area above the other artisanal and residential quarters. The vast mud-brick granaries found here bear witness to centralized agricultural management, while the reservoir, drainage and water disposal systems illustrate a clear concern for public hygiene. The city of Dholavira in Gujarat is the finest example. It features a castle surrounded by powerful fortifications, a ceremonial center and streets lined with dwellings of varying sizes, testifying to an already highly hierarchical society. Most of the city's buildings are made of stone masonry with a mud-brick core, a sophisticated technique ensuring great stability.
Buddhist heritage
The birthplace of Buddhism, India is home to many architectural treasures reflecting this spiritual and religious heritage, particularly in the North. Buddhist buildings can be divided into three types. Stupas, monumental reliquaries, are directly inherited from the tradition of megalithic burial mounds, consisting of a burial mound surrounded by a palisade. Most often made of painted brick or decorated with historiated stones (decorative elements evoking "narrative" scenes), these hemispherical domes rest on a circular platform and are surmounted by the relic chamber, usually square and made of stone, and a sort of belvedere on which rest the "parasols" symbolizing sanctity. Promenades are built into the platform to enable worshippers to perform the ritual of circumambulation (walking around the stupa in a clockwise direction). The whole complex is encircled by balustrades(vedika) pierced by porticoes(torana), all elegantly sculpted and decorated. The sanctuaries, or chaitya, are reminiscent of Western churches and their basilical plan. They are characterized by a central nave delimited by rows of pillars, flanked by lateral half-aisles, and rounded like an apse at its rear end, where a small dome-shaped stupa is located. Originally made of wood, the surviving sanctuaries are made of stone. Some were carved directly into the rock as early as the 3rd millennium BC. With their barrel-vaulted ceilings and wide horseshoe-shaped openings at the front, these rock sanctuaries are impressive for the scale of their proportions and the beauty of their decoration.
Monasteries are true cultural and religious centers. The so-called excavated monasteries bear witness to great architectural skill, with dozens of caves housing sanctuaries, chapels and communal dwellings. Among the treasures of Buddhism, don't miss the astonishing legacy of the Maurya empire and its most famous ruler, Ashoka, who had his ethical and spiritual code engraved in rock or on monolithic pillars(stambha) and initiated the construction of the Sanchi complex housing sumptuous palaces, temples and monasteries. Other not-to-be-missed sites include the Ajanta and Ellora caves, which combine monasteries, sanctuaries and monolithic temples carved out of the rock; the incredible ruins of Nalanda University, where superb vihara (residential and educational buildings) stand amidst stupas and sanctuaries; and Ladakh's numerous monasteries known as gompas. The Alchi Choskhor monastery is considered the pearl of Ladakhi gompas. See its temples with carved and colored wooden facades, its superb murals, its harmoniously proportioned mandalas symbolizing the universe, and its many votive stupas around the complexes erected in memory of illustrious lamas... Ladakh is often nicknamed "Little Tibet" or "Indian Tibet", because it is steeped in purely Tibetan Buddhism. Generally built high above a village, these gompas are divided into several sections. The upper part houses the temples(thakang), the great assembly hall(dukhang) and the temple of the terrifying tutelary deities(gonkhang). The lower part, on the mountainside, is dotted with monks' dwellings. Finally, it's impossible not to mention the superb Mahabodhi Temple, in the state of Bihar, with its granite portal engraved with the teachings of the Buddha, its 54 m-high spire covered with numerous sculptures and surmounted by an umbrella-shaped pinnacle, its sacred Bodhi tree and its footbridges linking the sanctuaries to the lotus pond. This jewel is one of the oldest Buddhist temples in India, and one of the few temples of this period (3rd-4th centuries) to have been built entirely in brick.
Hindu splendors
Hindu architecture applies the canons of the Vastu Shastra, a science of architecture that lays down immutable principles of symmetry, directional alignments and the circulation of flows and energies. The first temples, associated with Brahmanic cults, were small, simple structures consisting of a flat-roofed cella (chamber of the deity). Gradually, however, temples grew in size and complexity, with false roofs in a variety of forms. It was mainly under the Gupta Empire (3rd-6th centuries) that the main principles of Hindu architecture were developed, with temples reproducing the order of the cosmos. Most temples are built on stone or granite platforms, with steps or tiers carved into them to provide access to the holy site. Worship itself takes place in a small sanctuary at the heart of the temple, known as the garbhagriha (matrix chamber). The passage from the sacred to the profane can be seen in the organization of the space: in a skilful interweaving of courtyards and corridors, the faithful move from spaces open to all and richly decorated to the darker, more austere holy of holies. Circumambulation areas are also designed to enable the faithful to perform the ritual walk around the sanctuary. The temple itself is preceded by one or more mandapas, pavilions often with pyramidal roofs supported by a series of pillars. Enclosures protect these temples, which have become veritable religious complexes. These are pierced by ornate, sculpted portals called ardhamandapa, leading to the various pavilions. But the most eye-catching feature is the vimana, the elevated roof of the sanctuary. Following the codes of the style known as Nagara, the shrine-tower features a sikhara or conical spiral with curvilinear ridges and a finial adorned with an amalaka, a stone in the shape of a fluted disc or ribbed stone cushion, itself surmounted by an elegant finial called a kalasha. Hindu gems include the monumental complex of Khajuraho, in Madhya Pradesh, whose 23 sandstone temples are built on terraced platforms known as jagati, where worshippers can sit to pray or perform the ritual of circumambulation; or the splendors of Odisha, where the Ganga dynasty built the temples of Konark and Puri.
The advent of Islam and Mughal splendor
The earliest evidence of an Islamic presence in India are the works of Qutb ab Din Aybak, who in the 12th century created the first sultanate of Delhi. A symbol of astonishing syncretism, the Quvat al-Islam mosque is built on the platform of an ancient Hindu temple, while its qibla (space indicating the orientation of Mecca) is topped by domed volumes, also Hindu. Its red sandstone minaret is 72 m high, with a superb alternation of cylindrical and triangular ribs. Called Qutb Minar, this monumental tower was erected as a symbol of the triumph of the Muslim faith. The import of arches and domes, the importance given to symmetry and proportions, a wealth of decorative elements (calligraphic inscriptions, arabesques, floral or geometric motifs), formal innovations such as openwork stone screens(jali) or chattris (small canopied kiosks with umbelliform dome roofs), are among the great characteristics of this Islamic architecture, which is at once defensive, memorial and decorative. Discover the ancient capitals of Tughluqabad and Jahanpanah; the historic walled city of Ahmedabad; or the mosques of the Deccan. In Madhya Pradesh, particularly in Mandu, princes and sultans built grand palaces, such as the Javaz Mahal, an impressive 110 m long structure overlooking two mirrors of water. This monumental structure heralded the splendors of the Mughal dynasty. The first great edifice of the period was Humayun's tomb in Delhi, a veritable manifesto of Mughal architecture. The mausoleum is set in the center of a garden divided into 4 symmetrical parts by 2 streams intersecting at right angles, a Persian tradition known as chahar-bagh. The building also offers superb chromatic effects between red sandstone, local yellow stone, white marble inserts, terracotta brick and ceramic inlays. Balance and rationality preside over the creation of this mausoleum, whose volumes reflect the purity of the octagon. A power that would reach its apogee with the Taj Mahal. From the organization of the gardens and ponds to the alignment of the buildings, everything is designed to showcase this white marble splendor, flanked by 4 minarets and topped by a large central bulbous dome. This garden-mausoleum, with its "icy sensuality", is richly decorated, with precious stones inlaid into the marble using the pietra dura technique. Once a design had been chosen, a master craftsman would execute it in marble. The stones were then sorted, cut, chiselled, embedded and glued into the hollowed-out motifs, all of which were then polished with a soft emery. Alongside mausoleums, the Mughals also built sublime mosques. In the Mughal tradition, great mosques are characterized by monumental iwans (vaulted portal-hall open at one end and facing the qibla) and the presence of a large, open central courtyard flanked by minarets. The Mughals were also masters of urban planning, as evidenced by Fatehpur Sikri. Nicknamed "the city of victory", the palatial city is a superb example of reasoned urban planning, its original plan being that of a grid where streets and alleys intersected at right angles. In the center is an area dedicated to power, from which stands out the Diwan-i-Am or Hall of Public Audiences, surrounded by a series of porticoes interrupted on the west by the imperial throne in the form of a raised kiosk, bordered by finely chiseled stone claustras and topped by a sloping stone roof. The city is also home to sumptuous palaces such as the Panch Mahal, with its 5-storey columned structure, or the Jodha Bai Palace, with its richly sculpted interior columns and elegant open balconies. Baths, cisterns and drainage systems bear witness to the mastery of hydraulic engineering. Fatehpur Sikri, like the Red Forts of Agra and Delhi, offers superb chromatic effects when the light shines on its red sandstone gems. A synthesis of Muslim and Hindu styles, Sikh gurdwara are representative of the late Mughal period. The most famous is the Golden Temple in Amritsar, with its lotus-blossom dome covered in gold plates and a floor so precious it can only be swept with... peacock feathers!
Royal magnificence
Many of the independent kingdoms of the north - notably Rajasthan, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh - sought to rival the splendors of the Mughals. Jaipur is one of the finest examples of planned, reasoned urban planning: the city is organized on a grid plan with streets lined with colonnades, whose intersections form large public squares called chaupar, and divided into quarters called chowkri. Its founder, Sawai Jai Singh II, endowed it with sublime buildings carved from pink sandstone, giving the city a unique identity. The havelis, princely residences, fortified or not, display their sublime silhouettes and organization around multiple courtyards, while the most extravagant palaces emerge from the ground. The Hawa Mahal (Palace of the Winds) is undoubtedly one of the most famous. It's hard to miss, with its 15 m high main façade adorned with 61 oriels (a kind of closed balcony reminiscent of bow windows) and pierced by 953 small windows known as jarokha (dormer windows in Hindi). These openings enabled the women of the court to see without being seen! Chittorgarh, Jaisalmer and Jhalawar are among the powerful and sumptuous forts built in the hills of Rajasthan, the largest of which have surrounding walls sometimes reaching 20 km in circumference. In Madhya Pradesh, don't miss the great citadel of Gwalior, protected by imposing bastions and housing palaces adorned with superb bas-reliefs, carved stone panels and earthenware tiles. This architectural effervescence was also innovative and ingenious, as demonstrated by two astonishing edifices: Jaipur's Jantar Mantar, an astronomical observation site featuring rare examples of monumental masonry tools; and the Rani-ki-Vav, or Queen's Step Well, in Patan. The latter was designed as an inverted temple, emphasizing the sacred nature of water. 7 levels of staircases and sculpted panels lead to subterranean pavilions of extreme refinement. And last but not least, one of the country's most sacred cities: Vârânasî (Benares). The city of Shiva is famous for its ghats (90 in all!), a series of steps and tiers providing access to the Ganges, the sacred river. Each ghat has its own color (yellow, green, red...) and is overlooked by the dungeons and turrets of the havelis, whose facades are adorned with oriels, verandas and colonnades, or by temples and sanctuaries with a wealth of statuary. Want to relive the splendor of the Maharaja era for a night? Take a room in one of the many "heritage hotels" dotted around the north of the country! Since independence, many of the aristocracy's palaces have been transformed into luxury hotels. The Taj Lake Palace in Udaipur is without doubt one of the most beautiful, with its silhouette that seems to float on water!
European influences
While South India attracted the Portuguese, Dutch and French, North India was resolutely British. Delhi bears the imprint of Sir Edwin Lutyens, who designed a city marked by an astonishing blend of European classicism, Hindu decorative art and Mughal landscape architecture. Wide perspectives, avenues lined with bungalows and flower-filled traffic circles characterize English Delhi. In the 19th century, Calcutta was by far the largest colonial city in the East, with impressive public buildings such as the Doric City Hall, the Gothic-inspired Supreme Court and the Corinthian-columned General Post Office. These very classical styles blend with Indian influences, as evidenced by the elegant pavilions and kiosks topped with domes, and the bulbous bell towers overhanging many of the buildings. An Anglo-Indian style in the purest Victorian eclecticism. The creation of new roads and railroads also made it possible to build mountain resorts. The British recreated a kind of idealized English countryside in these resorts, which included cricket grounds, botanical gardens and leisure bungalows. One of the most famous is Dharamsala... now the residence of the Dalai Lama and seat of the Tibetan government! When it came to preserving India's rich heritage, the British took a radical step forward, moving from the outright looting of local jewels to the creation, at the end of the 19th century, of the Archeological Survey, an organization that called on numerous Indian specialists to carry out excavations and in-depth studies, and to enact heritage protection laws.
Modern and contemporary India
India's independence was accompanied by a great architectural effervescence. The government launched vast urban planning and construction campaigns. Nehru commissioned Le Corbusier to design the administrative capital of the new Punjab province: Chandigarh. Le Corbusier adapts his modernism to local climatic conditions. With brise-soleils, double-skin roofs, natural air-conditioning thanks to cooling towers and water mirrors to cool the air, Le Corbusier laid the foundations for sustainable architecture. In terms of style, his concrete volumes became more sculptural and expressive, as shown by the Capitol Complex, whose silhouette recalls that of a man with his arm raised, the famous Modulor or harmonic system introduced by Le Corbusier. But despite all its riches, the city was a failure, Le Corbusier having designed his city and its spaces for the automobile, not for a society in which people mainly got around on foot!
The great master of concrete and light, Louis Kahn, designed the Indian Institute of Management in Ahmedabad, nicknamed the "Indian Harvard". This monumental yet spiritual building is organized around courtyards lined with simple geometric volumes, giving the premises an almost monastic atmosphere. In this project, Louis Kahn was assisted by one of the great figures of Indian modernist architecture: Balkrishna Vithaldas Doshi, the first and only Indian architect to win the prestigious Pritzker Prize, the Nobel Prize for architecture. From the 1950s onwards, "Doshi", as he is now known, set himself the goal of providing the poorest classes with decent housing in urban communities planned around public, semi-public and private spaces where all generations could live together. His most famous project in this field is Aranya Low Cost Housing in Madhya Pradesh, with its astonishing interlacing of courtyards and walkways serving small housing units all in red sandstone. But it is undoubtedly his Ahmedabad studio that most fully embodies the values of the Indian master. Called Sangath ("to accompany" or "to move together" in Sanskrit), the studio is a semi-underground structure perfectly integrated into its environment of terraces, pools and mounds, from which other elegant concrete volumes emerge. Another great figure of Indian modernism is Charles Correo, who developed an astonishing syncretism between modernity and the vernacular in such astonishing achievements as the artistic complexes of Panaji, Bhopal and Jaipur. Other leading exponents of Indian modernism include Achyut Kanvinde, who blends a functionalist approach with brutalism and borrowings from tradition, as in the ISKCON Temple in Delhi, one of the largest complexes of its kind in India. Raj Rewal, on the other hand, has developed "a modernist, heritage and humanist approach integrating climatic constraints and local material resources". He was responsible for the Village of the 1982 Asian Games and the Nehru Memorial Pavilion in Delhi. More recently, Raj Rewal designed the beautiful Rohtak Visual Arts Campus, a symbol of architecture that rejects all forms of standardization. A major contribution to the history of Indian architecture, now threatened by urban expansion. In 2017, the Halles des Nations and Halles des Industries created by Rewal in Delhi were simply demolished... in India, only buildings over 100 years old can be labelled "heritage buildings" and thus protected. The dormitories of the Ahmedabad Institute, designed by Louis Kahn, narrowly escaped demolition in 2021, thanks to an outcry from architects and academics around the world! Other astonishing contemporary structures include the Baha'i Temple in south Delhi, with its lotus-leaf-shaped silhouette of alternating full and empty spaces. For many years now, India - and the North in particular - has been experiencing unprecedented urban and demographic growth, with the major cities seeing the emergence of gigantic shantytowns overlooked by towers of glass and steel. Yet, between these two extremes, many architects today are seeking the path of balance, advocating sustainable architecture in harmony with Indian traditions and culture. This is particularly true of Bijoy Jain, a leading figure in the contemporary revival. He is responsible for the astonishing Leiti 360 Himalayan refuge, destined to return to dust as time erodes. A superb reminder that, in Indian tradition, time never passes in a linear fashion, but is always cyclical.
Vernacular riches
The use of local materials adapted to the climate, the layout of private and public spaces, and the almost systematic presence of one or more courtyards are all features common to dwellings throughout North India, even if each region has its own specificities. In mountainous regions, houses are usually built high up on 2 levels using stone masonry and wooden pillars, and are covered with weather-resistant slate slabs. Desert houses, particularly in the Punjab, feature clay walls reinforced with straw and mud for excellent thermal properties. Their roofs are thatched with local elephant grass. In the north-east, "Assam" houses have stone or brick masonry walls rising 1 m from the ground and supporting wooden frames on which panels of woven bamboo are placed and then covered with plaster or lime plaster. These structures are extremely resistant to earthquakes. In the Kutch district of Gujarat, local residents have developed "Bhunga" houses. Made of wood, bamboo and clay, these circular houses are decorated with beautiful painted motifs. Another vernacular treasure: the houseboats or floating houses on the shores of Lake Dhal, not far from Srinagar (Jammu and Kashmir). Transformed into luxury cottages, these wooden boats bear witness to the skills and craftsmanship of Kashmir, with their beautifully carved woodwork.
