Richness of the origins
L'Anse aux Meadows National Historic Site on the island of Newfoundland is home to the remains of an 11th-century Viking settlement. Excavations have shown that the settlement consisted of a wooden frame and gable roof, covered with peat clods extracted from the surrounding bogs. But this first European presence should not obscure the fact that Canada's first inhabitants were the aboriginal peoples, whose traditions go back thousands of years. For them, it was not a question of taking control of nature, but of living with it. Habitat also has a very strong symbolic dimension, with structural forms corresponding to cultural values and spaces designed to represent the cosmos. Peoples belonging to the Iroquois nation were organized in villages surrounded by palisades of sharpened stakes. The traditional dwelling was the longhouse, with its bent cedar frame covered in bark. The Plains peoples, on the other hand, developed wigwams. These circular, elongated, dome-shaped dwellings were made up of vertically planted young trunks, interconnected by root strips and reinforced by horizontal membranes. The whole structure was covered with woven mats and bark leaves. Tipis were also widespread. These sloping cone-shaped portable houses were made of wooden poles and covered with buffalo hides held together by stones or stakes. An inner lining of buffalo hide, known as a "ghost screen", was added to protect against draughts and humidity, while preventing shadows from being cast on the outer wall. With the disappearance of the bison, the hides were gradually replaced by canvas.
On the Pacific coast, indigenous peoples developed a more "sedentary" architecture. The most important element here is the totem pole. Ranging in height from 10 to 30 m, carved from red cedar, these masts are adorned with animal and human forms recounting the history of the clan. More often than not, the houses of these villages are made of planks skilfully carved and arranged via a system of notches, and impress with their structures of beams and posts carved in the clan's colors. At the same time, these peoples have also devised semi-subterranean houses, with a structure composed of a system of rafters arranged concentrically, so as to support logs fitted and caulked with thick layers of grass. Alongside the semi-subterranean winter house, with its stone walls and load-bearing structure often made of whalebone, the Inuit developed the igloo, whose vault is not supported by any external structure, and whose interior is covered with skins and the tunnel entrance protected by a rampart of earth or snow to guard against the cold. The meeting of these age-old traditions with influences from Europe has also given rise to an astonishing syncretism, as exemplified by the Kateri Tekakwitha church in Gesgapegiag, a tepee made of aluminium and decorated with crosses and dreamcatchers, or the igloo-shaped churches in Nunavut.
On an air of France
The Sainte-Marie-au-pays-des-Hurons site is a reconstruction of a settlement founded by the Jesuits in Huron country in 1639. The village, surrounded by a wooden palisade, was divided into two sectors: one for the French with a chapel and workshops, the other for the Hurons with the traditional longhouses. Jesuit missionaries brought craftsmen from France to build the village. The settlers also developed a defensive architecture, establishing numerous defensive posts, such as Castle Hill and the fortress of Louisbourg. Québec City is the only city north of Mexico to have preserved its original ramparts, which include numerous bastions, gates and defensive works that encircled the city in two sectors: Upper Town, the religious and administrative center atop the cliff, and Lower Town, with its ancient suburbs. To establish their king's prestige in the New World, French-trained master builders adopted the codes of classical Grand Siècle architecture. Alongside public buildings and castles, a rich religious architecture also developed. TheNotre-Dame-des-Victoires church in Quebec City, a sober stone edifice, the Sainte-Anne-de-Beaupré Sanctuary with its double drum and domes, and the Récollets and Ursulines monasteries all bear witness to this French classicism.
The town of Tadoussac is home to one of the country's oldest wooden churches, reflecting the need for settlers to adapt to the climate and environment. This evolution can also be seen in residential housing. Initially, French settlers developed housing based entirely on the styles and forms they knew. In Quebec, for example, architecture with Breton accents (double-sloped roofs and gable walls), Basque (half-timbering) or Norman (4-sloped roofs) was born. These houses are made of stone or a mixture of stone and earth, with an exposed frame covered by a thatched roof, and an earthen or plank floor. But these models were not made to withstand the Canadian climate. From then on, the settlers adapted their architecture, taking inspiration from shipbuilding in particular, and opting for wood, double partitions and insulating materials (foam, rags). Floors were now made of stone, and roofs were steeply pitched to prevent snow from piling up. In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, however, numerous fires prompted municipalities to adopt urban planning laws. Wood was banned, and ashlar houses were favored. The double-sloped roof was supported by a lighter framework that could be removed in the event of fire. A way of preserving and transmitting the image of New France through time. Finally, it's impossible to talk about this French influence without mentioning the special case of the Acadians. Wooden frames, stone foundations and earth posts to reinforce walls and create crawl spaces, a clever mortise-and-tenon system, cob walls and thatched or shingled roofs characterize these homes. A landmark feature of Acadian communities, the church is usually built of stone and features some very fine decorative ornamentation. To discover this beautiful heritage, visit the Village Historique Acadien in Bertrand, New Brunswick.
British influence
In Nova Scotia, Lunenburg is a fine example of a planned British colonial settlement in North America. Founded in 1753, it retains its original checkerboard layout. Originally, this urban core was surrounded by fortifications. Stylistically, there is a harmony of scale, layout and use of materials (mainly wood). This quest for harmony was a constant in British architecture of the period. The style favored at the time was a skilful blend of borrowings from ancient codes (monumental Ionic columns, pediments, pilasters, royal coats of arms) via the Palladian and Georgian styles, as well as from the codes of colonial architecture as developed in the United States with its grand plantation mansions resembling Greek palaces, then, from the 19th century onwards, to Victorian eclecticism, favoring neo-Renaissance in the shopping streets with houses featuring cornices linked in braces, and brick neo-Gothic for public buildings. Religious architecture was not to be outdone, as demonstrated by Quebec City's imposing Holy Trinity Cathedral, the first Anglican cathedral to be built outside the British Isles. Its sober, symmetrical lines make it an example of the Palladian colonial style.
Towns expanded, with new suburbs linked by wide shopping streets to the city centers, which had become institutional hubs. At the same time, a new type of individual housing developed, notably in the form of row-houses, terraced houses with uniform facings and refined decoration. With its star-shaped citadel, Historic Properties (elegant stone buildings along the waterfront), Government House, clock tower and elegant Province House (Canada's oldest legislative building), Halifax is a must-see. While its star-shaped layout was imagined by the French royal engineer Vauban, the Citadelle de Québec was built entirely under the direction of Colonel Dunford. Don't miss the Residence of the Governor General, with its central double staircase and marble vestibule. Alongside these imposing citadels, the British also built numerous forts across the country. In the Great Lakes region, Fort George shows how, sheltered by an enclosure of earth and wood, a veritable small town developed, complete with barracks, guardhouses, officers' quarters, etc. Fort Wellington and Fort Henry are among the other famous British forts. Alongside these military outposts, another type of fort developed: the Hudson's Bay Company trading posts. Starting out as simple warehouses protected by a palisade, these trading posts became full-fledged forts housing warehouses, workers' housing, forges, workshops and sometimes even a hospital. Fort Albany in Ontario and Lower Fort Garry in Manitoba are good examples.
Bubbling nineteenth century
Boomtowns, or boomtowns, sprang up around new logging, mining and coal-mining operations. Created from scratch, they are characterized by a distinctive style that always follows the same stages. First, a cubic wooden building with one or two storeys and an almost flat roof is built to minimize wasted space, then a false front is added that extends beyond the roofline, giving each building a unique style. Dawson City in the Yukon is the most famous. In large metropolises, the federal government imposed its new power. Initially, the most widely used style was neo-Romanesque, with buildings featuring large arches. Then neo-Gothic and neo-classical styles gradually made their appearance, as shown by the Parliament of Canada in Ottawa, all hand-cut sandstone and limestone with its verdigris domes, Kingston City Hall with its Tuscan columns, or the Ontario Parliament in Toronto with its neo-Romanesque façade. Religious buildings are also adorned with neo-Romanesque trappings. The Niagara-on-the-Lake Presbyterian Church, with its Doric colonnades, is a perfect example of Greek Revival, while Montreal's Marie-Reine-du-Monde Cathedral, a copy of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, is the quintessential neo-Baroque. The University of Toronto is a perfect example of British campus fashion, with its neo-Gothic Soldier's Tower and neo-Romanesque University College. The country also saw the development of commercial architecture, with the Hudson's Bay Company erecting department stores with neo-Baroque facades, while major cities built buildings inspired by American skyscrapers, such as Vancouver's Henry Birks, one of the first 10-storey buildings.
But the 19th century was also, and above all, the century of the railways. In addition to superb railway stations, the almighty Canadian Pacific Railway financed the construction of veritable châteaux. In Quebec City, the Fairmont Le Château Frontenac, designed by Bruce Price, was modelled on the châteaux of the Loire Valley, and imposes a Renaissance style tinged with a form of English romanticism that we call the "château style". Blending neo-Renaissance and Victorian neo-Gothic, the Fairmont Banff Springs Hotel and the Fairmont Chateau Lake Louise illustrate the rise of this tourist architecture. Both were designed by Francis Mawson Rattenbury, who worked mainly in British Columbia. He was responsible for major public buildings such as the Parliament Building in Victoria and the former Vancouver Law Courts. He was also responsible for an astonishing range of residential architecture, of which Victoria's Craigdarroch Castle is the most famous example. A blend of Romanesque and Gothic, this faux-Scottish castle is as impressive as Toronto's Casa Loma, designed by E.J. Lennox, which blends Norman, neo-Gothic and late Romanesque styles in an ensemble inspired by Balmoral Castle! More rustic and intimate, with its red brick decorated with attractive molded ornamentation, the Queen Anne style is highly prized by the wealthy, who build chateau-like residences everywhere. Blending the sobriety of Arts and Crafts and Craftsman styles, the simplicity of California bungalows (all of which sublimate wood), and the extravagance of neo styles, architect Samuel Mclure designed Shingle Style beach cottages. These superb homes are inseparable from the West Coast, as are the more modest stilt houses on Vancouver Island, which can be recognized by their bright colors. The same colors can be found on the picturesque, wood-planked cottages of coastal fishing villages. Picturesque and rustic are also the hallmarks of log cabins. These "cabins" range from simple log structures, with a single room of square or rectangular plan, a gable roof whose overhanging gable is supported by wooden posts creating a kind of porch, and stone foundations, to more elaborate multi-storey structures. This style is also found in Quebec outfitters, former private hunting clubs now transformed into tourist facilities.
Between tradition and modernity
The turn of the twentieth century saw a renewed interest in parks and green spaces, as exemplified by Montreal's Mount Royal Park, designed by Frederick Law Olmsted, the landscape architect of New York's Central Park. Neo styles are still very much in vogue, particularly in the large Ukrainian community in Ontario and Saskatchewan, as evidenced by Edmonton's neo-Byzantine St. Josaphat Cathedral or Yorkton's St. Mary's Church, with its stunning dome and beautiful icons and paintings. The Romantic wave also continues in the architecture of castle-like hotels and resorts. Commercial and public buildings, on the other hand, turned to a decidedly more classical style. This marked the advent of the Beaux-arts style, combining rigor, elegance and monumentalism. The Fairmont Royal York Hotel and Toronto'sUnion Station, with their Doric colonnades, porticos and imposing facades, are superb examples. A fervent advocate of openly Canadian architecture, architect John Lyle advocated a blend of European classicism and regionalism, notably in the addition of frescoes, mosaics and sculptural motifs illustrating the country's history.
Then, in the 1930s, this style became more refined, and the term "stripped-down classicism" began to describe the evolution towards geometric forms heralding modernity, starting with Art Deco. Vancouver's Marine Building is the quintessential example of this sober style, with its vertical and recessed facade, large vaulted portal and spectacular, richly decorated lobby, but also drawing on more exotic ornamentation. At the same time, "everyday" buildings also inspired the moderns: the grain elevators and silos of the Great Plains, nicknamed the cathedrals or sentinels of the Prairies. Le Corbusier himself praised the simplicity of their structure, their pure geometric form and the way they perfectly matched form and structure. Cylindrical in the 19th century, they become square, then feature a pyramidal roof with cupola or gable roof.
Art Deco then gave way to Modernism, with its massive buildings and clean lines, followed by Functionalism, with its flat surfaces, glass and design where utility and function took precedence over ornamentation. The BC Electric building (Electra Tower) in Vancouver, with its outer wall covered with a layer of immense glass panels held in place by a fine metal grid - the famous curtain wall - is one of the most famous skyscrapers of the era. Functionalism was also to develop in Toronto. There, John B. Parkin and Viljo Revell designed the new City Hall, impressive for its two curved towers and its exterior alternating between large glass surfaces and ribbed concrete. The legendary Ludwig Mies Van der Rohe built the first two towers of the Toronto Dominion Centre here, and in his last major project, expressed his style of sobriety, lightness and modularity, combining concrete, steel and glass.
The 1940s-50s saw a sharp increase in the number of geometrically-organized suburbs on the outskirts of Paris, and the emergence of a new type of housing. The bungalow was still very popular, but a new style was added: the West Coast Style, a vernacular version of modernism, found not only on the West Coast, but all over the country. This style borrows not only from the International Style's "interlocking boxes", but also from Japanese architecture and Frank Lloyd Wright's organic approach to integrating buildings with their surroundings. The industrial suburbs also saw the emergence of practical, low-cost housing, recognizable by its box-like structure and low-frame roof. This style was soon criticized for being repetitive and soulless, and Moshe Safdie was no exception. In 1967, as part of Expo 67 in Montreal, the young student presented his graduation project: Habitat 67, a reflection on large-scale housing projects in the form of prefabricated, stackable, staggered cubic concrete modules. The rendering was intended as an original response to the usual monotony of standardized housing estates. But the real fantasy of the time was to be found in Montreal's balconies. To gain more living space in multi-unit housing, each apartment was fitted with a balcony connected to the street by wrought-iron staircases in a wide variety of shapes. This sober, expressive style heralds postmodernism, as do the curvaceous designs of Uno Prii in Toronto, such as the Immeuble Vincennes with its elegant canopy.
Contemporary architecture
In the early 1970s, Ieoh Ming Pei was chosen to redesign Montreal's Place Ville-Marie, whose cross-shaped plan and towers gave the city a resolutely North American look. In 1976, architect Roger Taillibert designed Montreal's new Olympic Stadium, with its elliptical shape and framework of 34 brackets made up of 1,500 parts supported by 50 m cantilevers. As is Calgary's legendary Saddledome, the "column-free amphitheatre" with its saddle-shaped roof (Calgary is the rodeo capital of the country). In 1988, the city hosted the Winter Olympics, which included the construction of the Olympic Oval, the world's first fully-covered ring structure, which can be admired from the 191 m high Calgary Tower. Two years earlier, Expo 86 in Vancouver had left its mark on the country. Understanding historical heritage, preserving it and integrating it into new creations were among the main objectives of the new architecture championed by the exhibition. The Northwest Territories Pavilion, with its glacier-like reflective glass, and the Canada Pavilion, with its 5 large sails, caused a sensation, as did the Classical Chinese Garden, a recreation of a Ming dynasty garden created by over 50 craftsmen from Suzhou, China's garden city. A masterpiece that demonstrates the importance of the Chinese community in Canada. Every major city has a district called Chinatown. Vancouver's is particularly beautiful, with its elegantly curved roofs and ornate, painted wooden balconies.
At the same time, great names in architecture continue to make their mark with skyscrapers such as Toronto's TD Canada Trust Tower and Bay Wellington Tower, both designed by SOM and Santiago Calatrava, and Calgary's The Bow, a 236 m-high curved tower by Norman Foster. Moshe Safdie has moved away from his "living boxes" to create architecture rooted in history. His work includes Vancouver's Library Square, whose elliptical shape encompasses the historic library building. An astonishing dialogue between past and present is found in the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto, a steel structure clad in aluminum and punctuated by large bay windows designed by Daniel Libeskind. Toronto-born Frank Gehry transformed theArt Gallery of Ontario by adding his titanium-blue New Gallery, with its undulating roof covered in glass panels and supported by curved beams. Recently inaugurated, Toronto's new courthouse, a 20 m high bay window, is the first project in Canada by renowned architect Renzo Piano. Like many other projects in the country, it is resolutely ecological. In Gaspésie, the Route des Belvédères impresses with surprising structures that blend into the landscape, such as the Belvédère des Deux-Rivières, an astonishing twisted wooden tunnel. A pioneer in high-density urban development, with an approach that blends skyscrapers, low-rise buildings and green spaces, Vancouver is also a pioneer in wood architecture. Specializing in laminated wood construction, a solid, fire-resistant material capable of storingCO2, Michael Green's firm is multiplying its projects, the most famous of which is the Brock Commons Tallwood House, a 54-metre-high student residence which, at its inauguration in 2017, was the tallest laminated wood tower in the world. At the same time, many cities are opting to preserve and rehabilitate industrial sites, while at the same time imagining ever greener spaces accessible to all. Vancouver, for example, with its Arbutus Corridor project, dreams of transforming 9 km of disused railroad track into a vast green corridor. And many locals are up in arms about pharaonic projects that distort the heart of cities, such as Quebec City's "Phare" project, renamed Humaniti, consisting of several tall towers... but still not built. Canadians will do anything to defend the unique beauty of their cities!
